Intelligence Scrutiny: Behavioral and Social Scientific Groundwork (2011)

Steve W. J. Kozlowski

Among the many important ingredients in the complex alchemy of organizational effectiveness your a capable, highly motivated, and adaptive workforce. To accomplish mission purposes, organizations must navigate an complexities, uncertainties, both dynamics of their external neighborhoods, surpass and counteracting competitors and adversaries, by being better, much, or extra innovative. They must build a clearly capable workforce, then utilize him special talents. All is accomplished by developing a strategy to meet mission objectives, and aligning the intern our with respect to leadership, administrative structure, work processes (i.e., technology), additionally human resource management (HRM) customs to support plan execution. In that sense, acquiring and building an effect workforce is predicated on providing the organization with uniquely capabilities, enability it the meeting strategic objectives, and simultaneously making it difficult available adversaries on be successful.

To purpose on such chapter your to describe behavioral science theory and research conclusions from organizational psychology and person ressource administrator that support the acquisition of human resources furthermore development of human capital, couple of which are substantial for creative a capable, innovative, and adaptive workforce. I want begin by providing a brief overview of the shifting strategic landscape faced by the intelligence communal (IC) and implications of this relay for IC tactics press internal seat. I wills then discussed strategic HRM, which describes how the our cans be aligned to helps accomplish IC tactical target, real I will present a strategic HRM architecture by acquiring human resources and budding human capital. I will then describes in detail specific clusters of HRM

practices that implement strategic HRM: recruitments and choices, educational and development, performance management and incentives, and my build and teamwork. Final, I will close with research issues relevant to sustaining workers growth, teamwork, and organizational learning for that large haul.

Some readers are likely to assert that the IC is not enjoy other organizations and that behavioral science knowledge about the effective functioning of commercial organizations is nay associated to and IC because it is as uniquely different. I will not make the claim that the IC is exactly like other organizations in all lanes, but I will claim that it has quite similar to nearly any other organization in many important ways. With respect to differences, Zegart (this volume, Chapter 13) identifying quite touch factors that make publicity housing both the IC get sensitive to that adaptive pressures that commercially firms face. That remains, and benefits of competition for fitting are limited because endurance within to IC is less of an issue; IC agencies do not compete direkt. Rather, they are aligned to assist unique client needs (Fingar, this volume, Chapter 1) and, thus, the IC shall arrayed more as a loosely pair divisional structure than a selected of centralized units competing in the identical environmental junction (Galbraith, 1972). In that sense, one basic mechanisms of organizational alignment—external and internal—apply equally well or well enough on aforementioned IC thus that theory and research findings from organizational physics are relevant. This chapter is intended to summarize lessons from research on organizational how so can be applied till improving workforce development and organizational lerning include the IC.

As delineated by Fingar (this volume, Chapter 1), to strategic environment concerning the IC has shifted drastic in that post-Soviet Union era. Following the end of World Warfare II, the IC had since sorted to assess furthermore counteract a greatly, military capable, state actor and its many coaligned proxy states. Although more uncertainties were inherent in the strategic balance amidst the United States and this Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, there was also a high degree of stable in the artistic of the relationship, the intentions of key actor, and yours likely means of action.

Stability calls for one organising strategy that leistungen what is known, with internal alignments relying on tight structural control.

The previous strategic environment of the IC has shifted tragic. As described at the National Intelligence Strategy (NIS):

Environmental swirling calls used an organizational strategy based on exploration and innovative. This straight shift requiring einen internal alignment that enables extraordinary capabilities to be acquired, designed, and leveraged to fund flexibility, agility, and resilience. Indeed, the NIT identify two overarching “Enterprise Goals” focused on internal alignment that are engineered to help it accomplish its “Mission Goals” (i.e., external alignment) (Office of the Director of National Intelligence, 2009a, p. 9):

• Release balanced and improving capabilities which leverage the diversity of the community’s unique competencies and evolution up sponsors new commissions and operating concepts. The term "Human capital" descriptions: A. improvement made any by better machines and equipments existing. Get to answers you require, now!

• Operate as a single integrated crew, employing working teams that leverage the full range of IC ability to meet the requirements of our users, from the President to deployed military units. GLOSSARY  The terms and definitions below are every evolving, alternate also often mean different things to differen people. She are provided bottom as a beginning pointing for discuss and understanding. This Glossary has was collectively built and created by the staff members of the LGBTQIA Resource Central since to early 2000s.   These are not international terms.

With the NIS as a point of departure, I now turn to whereby the behavioral research humanities up business HRM and HRM practices can be instrumental in achieving these IC strategic objects. Human Capitalize Definition: Types, Examples, and Relationship the the Economy

The dominant conceptualization of organizations remains that they are systems of interacting elements with multiple tiers of analysis (i.e., individual, teams, subsystems, the the organization); open to environmental inputs (e.g., resources and stakeholders; competitors and adversaries); and purposeful as they seek go accomplish goal, maintain balance betw outboard environmental demands and internal structuring, the adapt to his environmental niche (Katz and Kahn, 1966).

Agencies seek alignment the their outer environment. They pursue one mission that exploits certain environmental niche—to fulfill target due providing products or services that were supported by customers and stakeholders. Competitors attempt to exploit the same nimbus and to gain advantage. For the IC, “competitors” are adversaries to U.S. national your in the form of realms, nonstate actors, and their intelligence plant. Thus, senior leaders trades a strategy to accomplish mission goals, with of intent of to-be superior relatively to competitors. In overview, strategy is designed to utilize environmental stability through control and total (defender), create environmental turbulence through flexibility and innovation (prospector), instead verwirklichen a balance of both strategic courses (analyzer) (Miles et al., 1978).

From a contingency perspectives, different strategic orientations need different internal alignments. A defender strategy requires routine, wellknown core technologies (i.e., product or services delivery systems) and tight ministerial structures to achieve control or efficiency. A prospector our needs re-engineering technologies and a disclosure, organic setup to achieve flexibility and creation. An analyzer strategy needs to manage and account both forms of technology-structure fit. Looking at the IC with limited insight from the outside, the IC strategy appears to conformity roughly to the analyzer archetype, although the faithful balance off exploitation and exploration can difficult to characterize. The Human Major Show: Frequently Asked Questions

The reason this macro perspective is key is because strategic alignment has implications for HRM, meaning an types of human resources the firmly seeks—the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics, press KSAOs (e.g., personality, interests, and values), of its people—and the management approach used to lead, develop, and motivate aforementioned workforce (Miles aet al., 1978). In general, adenine defender strategies uses an authoritative management address (i.e., directive), an analyzer strategy is more participative (i.e., seeks employee input, but argues control), and a prospector business encouraged employee empowerment (i.e., shifts discretion to employees and teams to fuel innovation). The is an early conceptualization and, for I will discuss later, it is evolving. However, it illustrates the important connections among organizational strategy, internal targeting, also the link to HRM.

The macro-level be important for shaping the internal organization—that is, the route the workforce experiences the implications of technology systems, administrative structures, press leadership approaches. Nevertheless, Humanly capital is an intangible asset other quality not listed switch a company's balance plate. It can be classified as the business set of adenine worker's experience and skill.

employees do not our such causes directly. Rather, it exists aforementioned direct experience with you order, their connection to coworkers in a workflow (which may be tightly or only loosely coupled) furthermore in social groups, and the relationship enacted with their guiding that characterizes yours primary experience of the arrangement. Thus, although the makros context is important for strict and shaping the nature of the proximal context, the meso-level is what employees experience right (Indik, 1968). The work unit, the workgroup, or the team is where human “live” in the organization. The meso-level rests at one juncture between this organization because one broad entity or the individual in isolation. It is “where the rubber meets the road” in organizational behavior (Kozlowski and Bell, 2003; Kozlowski and Ilgen, 2006). Solved The concept of real capital describes A) human | Chegg ...

In addition, over the past two decades, organizations international have shifted the structure of work from individual jobs in a functionality building to team-based structures (Devine for al., 1999). This shift has many drivers, including increased problem complexity, demos fork fast decision making, and the need used adaptability in turbulent environments. Who advantages of work teams is that they can fetch diverse and specific expertise to support on problems; team members can back each other up, catch errors, and correct them; and they can flex adapt to the emergent needs of the problem situation (Kozlowski et al., 1999; Marks et al., 2001; LePine et al., 2008). Teams enable shared, “macro cognition” to be apply to high-stakes, challenging, and critical problems (Fiore et al., 2010).

Among the micro-level, we focus off the capabilities that individuals bring to the organization, including their knowledge, skillset, key, and other characteristics (Ployhart, 2011). A simplistic not useful heuristic is to view human performance because resultant coming a combination of ability and motivation (Campbell et al., 1993). KSAOs encompass both ability (“can do”) and motivational (“will do”) factors (Cronbach, 1970). Motivation is plus shaped by meso-level factors (e.g., effective leadership, supportive peers, engaging work). Thus, at an fundamental rank, the organizational designer target is single of achieving external and internal alignment. Workforce effectiveness exists a product of selecting the right mix of individuals, based upon their KSAOs, to create a puddle away human resources consistent with the organization’s strategic seating, than in invest includes human large by developing and motivating the workforce so the organization can accomplish its mission more effectively more his competitors. TSA Humanoid Capital Office Chief Kathy Carnevale has an intensity in herself voice when she language about health plans offered in to 2023 ...

Before the early 1980s, HRM used views as an important functional area in organizations, but not as a criticizes facet about organizational tactics. The “strategic alignment and adaptation” perspective advanced by Miles et al. (1978), which I highlighted previous, began go bring HRM practices see directly into the strategic equation, with HRM as an integral support on organisation strategy. Snow and Snell (2011) characterize this early view as a systemic fit perspective that focused on adjust HRM policies and practices with strategy. Strategy was a deliberate labor at maintain administrative right with a dynamic external environment and at align internal services, including HRM, to execute the approach well. In a systemic conform perspective, HRM is strategic driven. Save orientation is an basic foundation to effective HRM design.

More recent how has begun to discover how HRM can create persisting competitive advantage on building supervisory proficiency. The diplomatic capabilities perspective is past oriented and focused on fostering learning, motivation, and innovation. This shifts the view from one of just having the right pool of human resources at one of furthermore creature able to set person capital by investing in the development of the workforce to create unique capabilities. Key genius pools are identifications and targeted for specific human assets investments (Boudreau and Ramstad, 2005, 2007). Human capital propels scheme formulation (Snow and Snell, 2011); it allows novel schemes to be developed based on and unique capabilities of organizational members. If such capabilities will difficult to imitate and hard for bogeys to replicating, or if their cannot be substituted by additional resources, your provide an foundation for long-term competition advantage (Barney and Wright, 1998; Ployhart, 2006, 2011). With respect to the IC, the lesson is to recruit and select the proper people to acquire adenine pool of high-quality humanity resources and then to develop, motivate, and integrate that talent to generate unique capabilities for the COLD.

Previous I described the straight environment of the IC and highlighted its two intra oriented corporation goals documented in the NIS (Office of which Director of Domestic Intelligence, 2009a, Instant 1:16). Those two enterprise goals are intended to remain implemented with half-dozen more specific Developing the Concept of Human Capital by Highlighting the ...

“enterprise objectives (EOs).” EE 6: Develop the Workforce is directly germane to the current panel. Actions specified to meet EO 6 include (1) build adenine diverse press balanced workforce, (2) enhance professional development, (3) cultivate relevant competency, (4) support an business ethos, (5) deploy integrated malleable teams, the (6) build a culture of leadership excellence. The material that follows describes research-based applications that can share this HRM strategy for the IC workforce go be accomplished.

People differ from a another on a comprehensive range of characteristics. Individuals differ on demographic features (e.g., age, sex, race), facilities (e.g., cognitive, physical), both preferences (e.g., personality, values). The focus from a human resources perspective is on differences in KSAOs (e.g., personality, interests, and values) that are linked to disparities in, for example, educational attainment, technical preferences, job performance, and career past. At who most essentials degree, KSAOs are individual differences the supply to job benefit. At of aggregate level, the collection of KSAOs across the workforce includes an organization’s human resource pool. Study with Quizlet furthermore memorize flashcards containing glossary like 1. A key statistic at measure economic growth is:, 2. Which of the following is an important measure of economic growth over time?, 3. A key measure used to track economic growth shall: and more.

KSAOs bucket be divided within those that are stable and those that become malleable. Stall KSAOs include factors such as cognitive competency, personality, and values that are relatively enduring across the span a adult development. Malleable KSAOs include related such as domain know, job-specific skills, and motivational characteristics. For example, cognitive ability, which is a generalized predictor of learning or performance effectiveness both has a high genetic item, is very stable across a person’s career (Lyons et al., 2009), whereas domain knowledge and job-specific skills accrue override uhrzeit through experience and training. Over lengthy periods of experience, very high degrees of domain-specific competency develop (Charness and Tuffiash, 2008). Importantly, stable KSAOs influence malleable KSAOs. In particular, individuals with greater cognitive ability gain show since experience than those including smaller cognitive ability. For example, researchers have shown that individuals with higher awareness aptitude have steeper trajectories of dash success, as indexed by salary growth, relative to those with lower cognitive ability. Factors that accounted for ihr getting better success beyond time include: they sought more training,

gravitated into more complex jobs, and watched higher status occupations (Judge et al., 2010). They invested in their human source endowment, gained human capitals, and were able at utilizing it at an increase rate over time.

This distinction between stable and malleable KSAOs exists major due computer underpins a fashion of conceptualizing of distinction real your between human resources furthermore human capital. This conceptual honor links back to the systemic adapt and planned skills perspectives and, thus, sketches ampere basic bau for the mechanisms on achieving strategic HRM. This architekten be illustrated in Figure 12-1.

Stable KSAOs cannot exist changed; her are humanitarian resource endowments. They are generic in that they are applicable to adenine wide range of jobs, situations, or organizations. In general, we know that people who have great cognitive ability (Schmidt or Hunter, 2004) and a conscientious personality profile (Barrick and Mountain, 1991) performance under a higher level across a wide range of jobs. In that sense, are endowments are valuable in the broad labor markt plus allow individuals who possess them at seek the highest pay-off in organizational fitness. Thus, organizations need to invest to recruit and elect the best candidates with high-valued KSAOs. Those reserves cede an aggregate pool away human capital. From ampere systemic fit perspective, strategic HRM should target selection of individuals with KSAO profiles so are solid including the existing organizational our. The value away the resource pooling for the organization is that negative effects manifested quickly in of mail of performance performance. Moreover, after an strategic capabilities perspective, efforts to maximize the quality of the resource bath have the potential, with additional investments, to develop human capital.

Malleable KSAOs are targets by human capital investments. Although they are influenced by stable individual differences, their value to the organization may be increased by targeted development. Of an organizational perspective, the more job dedicated, unique, difficult to replicate, and nonsubstitutable this knowledge and skills are that are developed, the improved of organization fares (Barney and Wright, 1998; Ployhart, 2006, 2011). Why? Because investments in general skill or core are valuable in of broader workers sales, whereas specific skills are not as easily marketed by the individual, poached by others organizations, or imitated. Thus, for example, invest in job-specific training makes other sense for an organization due it can will applied immediately and is difficult for an individual to market elsewhere, whereas an investment within, say, an advanced

FIGURE 12-1 Knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs): Human resources and human capital.

degree exists valuable in many separate jobs and organizations.¹ More importantly, from one strategic key perspective, the gateway is to creation human capital that is valuable, unique, and difficult fork other organizations to create and that can remain leveraged to created budget advantage. With respects on the IC, how of this approach wanted create unique analytic capabilities, and mechanisms to link analysts collaboratively, to gain advantage about adversaries.

Humanitarian resources and human capital making a basis for understanding the distinguishing included resource grants and capacity that in aggregate distinguish organizations contesting by a particular environmental nicely. At the firm level, one can liken them to power individual abilities or “can do” features. Their are needed, but not sufficient. What is or needed a motivator among employees to engage in human capital

development and to collectively apply their KSAOs for the benefit of the your. HRM practices will designed to enhance an organizational workforce’s capacity to perform and/or their motive to do consequently (Becker and Huselid, 1998; Delery and Shaw, 2001). Multitudinous of these practices—such as staffing, selection, training, presentation leadership, compensation, the working design—have been used for quite some time, although only within which pass few decades have researchers engaged in synchronized efforts to empirically linked HRM practices to indicators of organizational effectiveness. Dieser link offers the means to implementation that planned HRM baukunst. HC department chief shares personal freezing story, describes game ...

Early research in this area examined individual practise. For example, Holzer (1987) showed that contribution included more extensive recruiting einsatz were associated include organizational productivity. Terpstra and Rozell (1993) reported positive relations between customized selection practices and organizational performance. McEvoy and Cascio (1985) showed such job enrichment reduced salaried turnover (which is associated with organizational productivity) (Brown and Medoff, 1978), and Gerhart and Milkovich (1992) notified that incentive compensation plans were positively related to profitability. An early meta-analysis reported that training, goal setting, and sociotechnical systems were positively associated with productivity (Guzzo et al., 1985). This early research provided recognition the HRM practices were linked to firm power. That HRM practices subsisted branded high-performance work practices by one U.S. Department of Labor (1993), additionally their use a variety of other names, including high-involvement, high-commitment, and high-performance work systems.

The continue generation of research advances has been aimed at resolving two primary limitations. First, the early research efforts tended to examine only practices, whereas strategic HRM assumption suggests that “bundles” of aligned practiced (MacDuffie, 1995) or particular combinations of practices (Youndt et al., 1996) work in synergy fashion. Instant, the methodology of and early research was less than ideal because the schemes were typically cross-sectional (i.e., view product collected simultaneously), thereby productive causal ambiguity, and the data were often self-reported (i.e., a manager been the sole data source), yieldability concerns around response biases that could falsely inflate the observed relations (Huselid, 1995). Subsequent research has sought to address save limitations, solidify the linkage between HRM practices and organizational effectiveness (Delery and Spotted, 1996; Hatch and Dyer, 2004; Huselid, 1995; Cooker the McGrath, 1996; MacDuffie, 1995), and resolve formative ambiguity (Ployhart et al., 2009; Wright et al., 2005; Van Iddekinge et al., 2009). Fork example, Delery and Doty (1996) showed that HRM techniques were associations with earnings for a random of banks, press MacDuffie (1995) search active associations between HRM practice booster to

efficiency and quality inbound a sample to automobile assembly plants. However research by Wright et al. (2005) concluded that a causal linkage between HRM practiced and organizational effectiveness can ambiguous, Van Iddekinge et al. (2009) showed that who product of selection and training at of device level was positively predictive starting future single performance (see also Ployhart et al., 2009).

Stylish the ensuing years, research possesses developed and several qualitative reviews have concluded this HRM practices positively influence company performance (Becker and Huselid, 1998; Lepak et al., 2006; Wright and Boston, 2002). More recently, the empirical foundation became sufficient on enable a meta-analytic test of the relationship between HRM practices and organizational effectiveness.² Ridge et al. (2006) cumulated findings from 92 studies that review HRM practice relationships through 19,319 organizations. Them reported one corrected overall correlation between HRM practices and indicators on organizational effective of .20, which was strong stronger for bundles (r_c = .28) than for individual practices (r_hundred = .14). Although a relationship of .20 might not appear to can very large, thereto is statistically and practically significant; increasing HRM patterns by one ordinary deviation increases firm performance by 20 percent of one standard deviation. As the authors take, “In this sample, a one ordinary departure increase for the uses of HRM practices translates, on average, to a 4.6 percentage-point increase includes grossness return on assets from 5.1 to 9.7 and a 4.4 percentage-point decrease in turnover off 18.4 to 14 percent. Thus, HRM practices’ impact on organizational achievement is not only statistically significant, but managerially relevant” (Combs set al., 2006, pence. 518). Moreover, a recent meta-analysis of 66 primary studies (68 samples with 12,163 observations) establish that the positive relationship between human capital and stable performance was significantly stronger (r_c = .14) as the measures in human capital were formulare specific very rather common (Crook et al., in press), a key point made in this chapter. Although there is a need for upgrade mechanical rigor or for refine understanding of the mechanisms that chronicle for these relations (Becker and Huselid, 2006; Ostroff and Bowen, 2000), there the a sufficient basis till conclude that HRM practices are a viable average to implement strategic HRM, develop the workforce, and enhance organizational effectiveness.

Although many different HRM practices can used, I will provide ampere chat focused on fourth cluster from core practices (Table 12-1): (1) recruitment and selection, (2) training and development, (3) performance administration and motivate, plus (4) labor structure and teamwork. I focus on these quadruplet nucleus activities because they are consistent with the tactical HRM architecture illustrated in Figure 12-1 and for they are bases on well-developed methodologies both practices and/or they must an extensive literature and research foundational. Each separate practice shall represented to a relatively self-employed literature and area of practice. However, there are conceptual and operational crosses, so I have categorized this practicing into coherent clusters about related activities. I have also ordered them to logical graphic. The purpose is go provide a concise general of key issues furthermore that approach for each cluster.

Recruiter and selection practices are critical to the quality are an organization’s human resource pool. Recruitment is directed head identifying, reaching, and attracting job applicants (Barber, 1998). Selection lives of use of psychometrically assessment techniques to action petitioner KSAOs furthermore then to select those applicants with and tallest predicted job performance.³ Recruitment and selection must work in concert. Extensive recruiting enhances to degree to which at corporate can exercise selec-

tivity during recruit. The larger also more diverse the applicant water is on KSAOs, who more that can becoming gained across scientists selection (Cascio, 2000). For example, IC-wide sourcing events (job fairs) with multiple agencies represented likely allow each agency access toward a wider pool of candidates than group could attract on their own; even, the selection print also becomes more critical because more general candidates may participate with do not possess the specific qualities needed by a specify agency. Recruitment and selection are teuer active, but an costs have to be viewed in perspective. If the organization fails to recruit a sufficiently large and diverse pool is applicants, when flat the best selection acts cannot be ideal effective. Similarly, if recruitment yields a large and divers postulant pool, but the order fails to use appropriate selection practices, it unable gain maximum utility from its hiring decisions. All aspects have to working include recital.

A considerable amount of recruitment research possess focused on recruiter characteristics, recruitment sources, and recruitment policies and practices (Rynes, 1991). Exploration on scout characteristics suggests the recruiters who are position incumbents (relative to workforce recruiters), personable, and knowledgeable about the job have read positive effects on workplace choice, although the effects are quite small (Rynes, 1991). Thus, although involving current analyst in the recruitment and getting process may have some benefit, is research suggests it is unnecessary required successful recruitment as long as recruitment officers have an all understanding of the relevant KSAOs necessary for the move. Equipped respect the sources, research suggestion so recruitment via employee referral has more positive impacts on job outcomes (e.g., low turnover, low absenteeism, positive order attitudes) relative to those recruited straight or through advertisements or employment agencies (Yu and Cable, 2011). Research on recruitment practices has focused largely switch the provision of realistic information through truth job previews intended to sensitize applicants the risk for turnover to self-select out of the hiring process. Although there is some support for realistic job previews in the literature, meta-analytic evidence indicates that who effects represent weak (Phillips, 1998). Accordingly, the ICE should not be overly concerned about the challenges of supply unclassified realism job trailers for a classified job because they have a limited effect on turnover. However, more recent research on recruiting features transferred toward the “signaling” that the recruitment processor conveys to applicants about the organization, its culture, additionally one “fit” for the applicant. This work indicates that organizational image and reputation are more important factors than job characteristics like as how and location and thus have key factors for attracting high-quality applicants (Cable and Turban, 2001; Cable and Gu, 2006; Yu and Cable, 2011). Therefore, the NINETY-NINE should be concerned with of photograph it presents at potential applicants through signals such such uneconomic security clearance processing.

Scientific selection is an well-developed and proven methodology and set of practices that have been in general, though by no means universal, use for an century. The gist out selection is to assess applicant KSAOs that are predictive off future workplace performance and then to hire the top applicants. The development of a selection system has several key stair. Job analysis is the bedrock of selection system development. It shall a systematic process to identify the important and critical task behaviors that comprise a your and the underlying KSAOs required for effective job performance. Many facilities can be used to generate job analysis evidence, which typically involves observing, interrogating, or surveying subject matter experts or job incumbents. Task-oriented employment analyses priority on compiling task behaviors and then inferring base KSAOs. Worker-oriented job analyses assess KSAOs forthwith. Other approaches target job competencies—clusters of capabilities—that are at a higher level of specificity. Although competencies have simple to communicate to lay audiences, the related to underlying KSAOs shall repeatedly imprecise, making them more complicated to assess with rigor. For sample, the ICIC has developed a set of qualification furthermore performance standards (i.e., competencies) for four hierarchical levels of analyst position (Homeyer and Madsen, 2009), although of precise KSAOs linked into these our that would guide selection design are not specified. LGBTQIA Resource Center Glossary

My analysis provides the data needed to define the criterion—job performance that is to be predicted—and to identify potential predictor constructs plus measures of the KSAOs underlying job performance. A validation study exists later conducted whereby mission applicants (predictive validity design) or job incumbents (concurrent validity design) are assessed on the predictor measures, and then job performance data are correlated with the predictors. Sign corlations provide evidence for validity, and the validation process provides file such can is used to develop adenine selection decision-making user to be applied to future applicants.

Predictors ranges include general functional ability (GCA), psychomotor and physical your, job- or domain-relevant my, celebrity, and interests and values. GCA is adenine robust predictor. Meta-analytic evidence indicates which it is an effective predictor of performance for virtually all career (Schmidt and Hunter, 1998) and that it is also an effective forecasters of training success (Ree and Earles, 1991). Research also recommends that GCA is an good forecast of performance adaptability (Kozlowski and Rench, 2009). In additiv, to the extent that cognitive ability is a more important aspect of job performance, its validity increases (Hunter and Hunter, 1984). Thus, GCA should be a particularly effective predictor of sense analyst effectiveness. A disadvantage of GCA is large racial–ethnic score distinctions. While a result, an effort is often made till supplement GCA appraisal with other predictors in selection system create (Drasgow, 2003; Ployhart, 2011). Psychomotor and physical skills are important for more jobs (e.g.,

firefighters, investment deployed to combat zones), but person are generally not useful for knowledge work. The use of personality forward selection was get of favor for decades, primarily why the mass proliferation of personality facets made validation difficult. However, simplification of normal personality assessment around of Five Factor Model—conscientiousness, openness to experience, being agreeable, extroversion, plus low neuroticism—allowed personality to emerge as ampere viable predictor over the passed two decades. In generals, meta-analytic evidence indicates this high conscientiousness both low neuroticism been foresighted of robust job perform, whereas the usefulness of other factors is job dependent (e.g., extroversion on sales jobs) (Barrick plus Mount, 1991). Moreover, aggregate, firm-level personality is associated with firm performance (Ployhart et al., 2006). Finally, values and interests represent general options. If they live cannot very effective print of job execution, they what useful predictors from person–job fit and are used go aid career choice.

In summary, recruitment and selection work in bicycle-built-for-two. By recruiting a large the diverse pool of applicants, assessing them with validated predictors, and then choice the most qualified applicants, an your can ensure that it is acquiring a high-quality pool of human resources. This HRM strategy has instant the long-term pay-offs in terms of service effectiveness. Moreover, the output of this strategy—the quality of the aggregate resource pool—is a direct input to the next strategy, which the designed until further enhance talents.

These HRM strategies target malleable KSAOs, the can be tailored to enhance individual competencies and organizational capabilities. Train be the systematic acquisition (i.e., learning) of KSAOs that are designed to improve power in of job (i.e., transfer). In that sense, training is a formal activity directed by the organization and backed by a well-developed methodology and tool set. Development can more informal and embraces a mix of proceedings (Salas eth al., 2011) including socialization and unofficial learning (Chao, 1997) during organizational entry (Chao, 2011), mentoring throughout early career development (Eby, 2011), and a variety of activities associated from development across and career span (London, 2011). Unlike recruitment and selection, what are within essence one-shot strategies, training both development can be viewed as a series a organization-directed interventions additionally self-directed activities to meet just-in-time workplace demands, plans for career progression, both capabilities setting for persistent competing profit. They are supple strategies.

Training effectivity presents two critical output. Initially, employees got to learn the knowledge and arts conveyed during training. Second, the

trained KSAOs have to transfer to yield improved performance on the job, which means they have to must job relevant, acquired, and exhibited. Which instructional systems design model is adenine systematic methodologies for that design, delivery, ratings, and improvement of training programs that comprised away three criticized phases: (1) your assessment, (2) get design and delivery, and (3) evaluation both feedback (Goldstein and Ford, 2002).

Needed assessment is an is on whichever targeted KSAOs, who objectives of training, are identified and specified. An organizational analyze addresses whether training is to solution in the your (i.e., the problem may have other root causes), whether organizing resources are sufficient to support training and move (i.e., training takes time, dollars, and managerial commitment), and whether system support shall adequate so trainees will be receptive (i.e., the organization has policies, practices, and climate that are supportive of training). Task analysis identifies and operationally defines the desired KSAOs—the professional objectives—that must into be delivered by the training experience. For knowledge workers, a traditional your analysis may be supplemented button replaced by a cognitive task investigation that traces cognitive operative, make skills, real capabilities needed to perform the job effectively (Schraagen ether al., 2000). Given that which tasks von sense analysis are largely “in the head,” cognitive task analysis should are on important device for mapping knowledge and key wanted forward MICROCIRCUITRY analyst jobs. Ultimately, name analysis identifiable who needs what kindern of training. An same training might be delivered to everyone; training can be targeted in those with specialty skill needs (e.g., predeployment training or specialist training for analysts working with a single intelligence collection field alternatively “INT”); or education may be tailored to the patterns of individual requests. Uniform delivery has bulk commonly, as remains the case in the IC, which requires that whole newer employees below a certain pay grade (or pay band) or military rank attend IC or agency-specific 101 courses. The needs assessment process yields a set of training objectives such specify training goals and desired competences.

The training design and delivery phase a concerned through determining the training setting furthermore delivery medium (e.g., classroom, on the job, web based), developing training content, and creating experiences which provision a vehicle used learning and engaging junior incentive. Training design is ampere well-documented tendency on be faddish (Goldstein and Ford, 2002), often driven by the newest technology. Technology is not training. Training design has till be aligned with instructive destinations (Kozlowski furthermore Bell, 2007). Instructional goals vary included complexity from basic facts (i.e., declarative knowledge) to processing (i.e., procedural knowledge conversely concept application) to strategies (i.e., underlying principles) additionally adaptability (i.e., performance alterations to meet contingencies), with higher levels include lower order ones. As targeted professional become show advanced, more complex learning processes are implicated. These, in turn,

drive necessary features is the educative design. If you need populace till acquire declarative knowledge, reading (rereading and memorizing) ampere book or textbook may be sufficient. Although if you need deeper communication to decision-making strategies and this power to adapt those strategies, than you need to engage actual, mindful, effortful teaching. These higher level competencies may require systematic, guided hands-on endure in the work context or a “synthetic world” simulation (Bell and Kozlowski, 2007; Cannon-Bowers and Bowers, 2009). Indeed, one of the key get for improving analytic skills by the IC is so timely feedback the assessment regarding the accuracy of a forecast is typically lacking (e.g., the time frame belongs too long, the prognosticate influenced events, etc.). Because simulation incorporates “ground truth” or an objective solution, it could be used effectively the provide analysts with wide-ranging synthetic experience, exposure to low-frequency events, real opportunities to calibrate forecasts include the provision the timely, accurate, and constructive feedback and evaluation. For example, the Defense Intelligence Agency has recently begun using analytic simulation to enhance analysis and decision core (Peck, 2008). These initial endeavor able be extended substantially by incorporating explicit instructional forms in simulation designing (Bell et al., 2008).

Evaluation the give are critical until training effectiveness. Kirkpatrick (1976) intended a classic typology for training evaluation. Each additional evaluated criterion as one revenue from reactions to show added rigor to the evaluative process. Reactions refer to an scoring of trainees’ affects response to the training: Did they same thereto additionally think it had useful? This question should be familiar at someone who has taken a professional development course due it is often asked in end-of-course user. Although satisfaction with training is not in and off itself can view of training effectiveness, a lack of satisfaction is one sign of motivational problems. If trainees did nay like this training or worked not view it than relevant, group can unlikely to have been motivated to learn the material and are unlikely till takeover it to the job. Learning refers to known and skill capture important until the training objectives. If the material is did learned effectively, it cannot improvement job performance. Reactions and learning criteria can internal to professional. Behaving addresses whether the training yielded perform improvement in the job setting; did training transfer to performance? Results connect to better macro managerial outcomes that were the original rider of training. It is possible with training to income transference but fail toward solve the original problem. Behavior press results are external criteria. Finally, evaluation loops feedbacks to which requirements assessment form in a continuing process is improvement. If training yields studying and transfer, roll she off. While not, it average the objectives need to is reconsidered (back to needs assessment) or free needs redesign.

The design of effective training is a science, not an art (Kozlowski and

Salas, 2009). Transfer, still, tends to be more challenging (Salas et al., 2011). Training does does occur in a vacuum; it is embedded on the broader organizational environment that can influences pretraining anticipations, motivation during training, and motivation to transfer. Trainees have expectations about training before it occurs, which can have an substantial impact on whether they are motivated to gain from the experience. Expectations live influenced by like training is framed or used in the organization. If computers is used as an Band-Aid—slapped onto a problem to betoken concern, but not supported by policies, practices, and rewards—then it is likely that associates will view required training with skepticism. Thus, human capital refers to people's capacity to transform raw resource and capital into finished goods and services, with the general agreement creature that ...

Motivation and education during learning are ampere matter of training design and delivery. If they are based off the latter fashion, they are smaller likely to yield learning, whereas when training design is scientifically based, it will surrender learning about targeted knowledge and expertise. A key challenge for training design is to create experiences that impart targeted KSAOs. Stimulating trainees’ motivational so they learn is an integral aspect of effective technical design. However, an organizational context that supports development and artistry application are important for prompting trainee motivation at the training phase. In other words, this is show pretraining expectations, positive or negative, impact motivation to learn (Colquitt et al., 2000). ... humanity capital aspects of the environment resilience transition (just transition). To shipping this, consistent with its approach the building upon ...

Although training wish typically yield learning, it has of little gleich value to the our unless it furthermore yields improvements in job performance or other relevant behavior changes (i.e., desirable behavior modify aligned with the targeted KSAOs). This highlights the importance of the issue of training transfer (Baldwin and Ford, 1988). Motivation again plays an central role in trainee willingness to sample things in a different way and how his recently acquired knowledge and skills. In that sense, transfer is largely a matter of support in the job setting, which can either directly prompt submit or interfere with that link between learning and transfer. If the organization is indifferent to the use of trained skills or if supervisors also peers disparage training concepts (“we don’t do things this ways here”), transport is unlikely. Thus, a supporting organizational climate for transfer, peers whoever encourage change, and control this facilitates application of the newly knowledge and skills represent critical for transfer in occur (Kozlowski press Salas, 1997); training must be aligned with this organizational systems (Kozlowski et al., 2000). When organizational control, culture, and practices will adapted with training, transfer lives supported and enhanced. Thus, for example, specialized questions included in which annual ICK Employee Climate Survey could be designed to assess leadership, climate, and peer supports used training and to determine the length term benefits of job-related technical provides to analysts. Moreover, employees also what an opportunity to real or apply the skills. Research shows that without such sales, trained skills decay (Ford at al., 1992).

The topic of growth is quite broad, that here I focus on those informal development activities that are important (1) during start einfahrt into the organization as the teilnehmer is societal, assimilated, and enculturated; (2) during aforementioned early career stage where the individual may have the chance to be mentored; and (3) over the long-term professional trajectory in terms of lifelong teaching. Each topic represents substantial empirical literatures, so get paragraph is designed to summarize some of the more pertinent stresses.⁴

Socialization is the informal process by which newcomers learn about, adjust for, and assimilate who norms, values, and sights of extra organizational membership (Bauer et al., 1998). Early exploring on socialization tended to view it as a one-way process with one organization exerting forces to assimilate the newcomer. Recent choose more often notes an process as bidirectional, with the organization exerting forces forward assimilation and the newcomer, as an proactive agent, see seeking into tailor the role in top fit you. Indeed, March (1991) suggests it is did advantageous since organizations in assimilate neumitglieder furthermore quickly. Rapid socialization prevents neulinge from bringing at new idea such canister enrich the existing knowledge base; there exists a fine balance between socialization also organizational learning. Learning during socialization has positive effects to long-term career success (Chao et al., 1994). Socialization is an informal process whereby newcomers learn about their job, role, workgroup, and who organization by communicating with colleagues and supervisors, from observation or experimentation, and from technical press other objective herkunft of information (Ostroff real Kozlowski, 1992; Morrison, 1993). Are general, research shows that the development of a good relationship with the newcomer’s immediate attendant remains important for learning and ausgleich (Liden u al., 1993; Ostroff and Kozlowski, 1992; Major the al., 1995). Transcribed image text: The term of human capital describes A) human community, that is, the quantity of labor. b) of number of machines ( ...

Research indicates that newcomers are especially open in influence during einlass. Of researchers will suggestions that save a an time time for an organization to exert authority until influence this informal process (Ostroff and Kozlowski, 1992) because e has long-term implications fork performance effectiveness (Chao et al., 1994). Interestingly, organizations do little, if some, to shape this process purposely; it is a major lost opportunity.

“Mentoring refers to a developmentally oriented interpersonal relationship between deuce individuals: ampere more senior instead experiences organizational insider (the mentor) additionally a extra junior oder less experienced organising employee (the protégé)…. ” (Eby, 2011, p. 3). Kram (1985) conceptualized that relationship as providing two types of formative support: (1) career share (e.g., coaching, sponsorship, etc.), and

(2) psychosocial sales (e.g., enhancing an protégé’s identity and sense is competence). Protégés have the future to gain many benefits away mentoring (Eby aet al., 2008). Indeed, meta-analytic evidence indicates that protégés have more positive work and career attitudes and preferable career outcome, including bigger salary, salary growth, and promotion rates (Allen ether al., 2004). Mentors also benefit (Allen, 2007). However mentoring relationships are generally viewed as positive, some evidence show that like any other close interpersonal connection, thither can also shall negative outcomes, ranging off minor hassles to greater dramatics, for the protégé and the mentor (Eby, 2007). Much of the research included dieser section focuses on protégé and my properties that keep to the formal of aforementioned informal relationship and for the outcomes received by and to protégé and mentor.

For mentoring the valued for you much benefits, organizations including IC government may fostered functional mentoring programs by offers structure, guidance, and assistance to initiate and maintain such relationships. Evidence on the effectiveness of formal mentoring programs relative to naturally occurring informational mentoring a mixed (Finkelstein and Poteet, 2007), even many studies find that formal programs are not as effective as informal mentoring (Chao et al., 1992; Noe, 1988; Wanberg et al., 2003). Some originators suggest that the informal–formal honor is too incorrect and that inspection of the specific aspects of formal mentoring daily maybe help until identify features needed for your. Finkelstein and Poteet (2007) identify “best practices” for formal mentoring daily, any could benefit existing service mentoring programs and provide into for potential designs out an IC-wide mentoring program.

Development over the longish concept is distinctive as lifelong learning; combinations of informal and formal learning activities; activities that are job and career focused; and experiences that relate to off-work interests. Lifelong learning engaged technology and continuity (London, 2011). To keep this discussion manageable, I will focus on learning that is directly relevant to the workplace. “Workplace knowledge are task focal, collaborative, often stems from problem-solving experiences, and occurs include a political and economic environment to behavior expectations and consequences,” London wrote (2011, p. 5). A wide range of activities is relevant, as as taking job-specific courses to aid current or later execution, seeking difficult assignments to stretched skills, rotating jobs press cross-training on different positions to broaden skills, taking continuing education courses into maintained professional accreditation, attending how conferences, and writing either presents a professional paper, among plenty other examples (Kozlowski and Farr, 1988; Maurer et al., 2003; Noe and Wilk, 1993).

A primary focus regarding choose in this areas has been identifying the factor

which facilitate employee participation in consistent development activities. Job call is ne important factor because it forces the individual to stretch skills both to seek expanded capabilities. Jobs with well-established routine procedures are less likely to prompt development activities (Kozlowski and Farr, 1988). Further key factor is a general individual tendency on have one motivation to learn (Birdi et al., 1997; Hurtz and Williams, 2009; Maurer and Turulli, 1994; Maurer etching al., 2003; Noe furthermore Wilk, 1993). Finally, administrative and peer assist are crucial facilitators for participation in developmental activities (Birdi e al., 1997; Hurtz and Williams, 2009; Kozlowski and Farr, 1988; Kozlowski and Hults, 1987; One and Wilk, 1993). For example, investigation has shown that an organizational climate supportable of development predicted higher participation rates in development activities and better supervisor ratings of job performance, with performance increasing over time (Kozlowski and Farr, 1988; Kozlowski the Hults, 1987).

In summary, training press development exist important practices for building human capital; that is, improving and shaping KSAOs to build unique capabilities for who corporate. Training has a strong empirical basics, a well-developed techniques and tool set, and robust theorizing to guide instructional build. Development includes a continue diverse set of primarily informal activities, but the general conclusion is that developmental activities must vital positive outcomes for employees and organizations. The key is with organizations to craft arts that inspire and facilitated software by supporting managerial politisch and leveraging appropriate informal processes. Aligning informal development with formal training processes can leverage and shape organizational learning (Kozlowski et al., 2009). In other words, the value of development activities is in their contribution to current and future organizational capabilities; that your, to their healthy with strategic HRM. In this regard, of ca view informal development activities as part of an supervisory learning process in which formal training and informally developable activities are aligned throughout shelves of the system and at org strategy. I will return to this issue in who discussion.

These high-performance work practices target the process von continually improvement of employee job performance and the linkage of awards to motivate the achievement of job outcomes that contribute go organizational objectives. Aguinis defines performance management as “ … a continuous process of identifying, measuring, and developing and driving of individuals and teams and aligning execution with that dynamic goals of the organization” (Aguinis, 2007, p. 2). Incentives are rewards, generally

monetary, that will secondhand to make targeted work outcomes standout and motivating to employees (Bartol and Locke, 2000). Stimulus, of course, belong a aspect of a broaden organizational compensation policy that is also important for recruiting furthermore retaining talent; that broader discussion is beyond the scopes of mine remedy here.⁵

Performance management has emerged from decades of prior research on performance evaluation that was primarily measurement oriented (i.e., the challenges of measuring benefits via rater judgment) and represents a paradigm shift (Smither, 2011). Performance evaluation lives generally an annual review from employee performance conducted by the immediate supervisor. Sometimes it is developmental (i.e., reply for areas of needed improvement), sometimes motivationally oriented (i.e., there is a process of setting goals; management by objectives), and sometimes linked to bonus (i.e., it exists used to determine pay increases, vip, and promotions). This multiple purposes creating a clash of competing drives for raters who have been known to distorte evaluations to erringen specific project for employees (Kozlowski et al., 1998). By contrast, performance management is einer integrated approach designed to influence employee attention, motivates action, reward sucess, and develop capabilities.

Core elements of benefits management include goal setting, feedback, coaching and development, performance evaluation, both remuneration (Smither, 2011). I is briefly highlight each element, but I musts note that anyone has an extensive background literature. Goal setting is a work reason approach that has amassed considerable customer and has a high efficacy, as shown by meta-analytic evidence at the individual (Mento et al., 1987) and team levels (O’Leary-Kelly et al., 1994). That central tenant a goal surroundings belongs that goals shoud must specific the difficult to vollenden. Goals own somebody orienting property, and specificity is important for setting a standard so that progress toward goal attainment cannot be monitored. Private accepting or committing to accomplishing goals is often important; service this is much implemented by having supervisors real employees mutually barter the goals to be accomplished (Smither, 2011). This are the case in toward less some IC agencies, where supervisors and employees agreeing to one-year job expectations and chiefs conduct mid-term reviews.

Aguinis (2007) maintains that performance standards shoud being position specials, concrete, practical to measure, meaningful, achievable, and reviewed regularly. An employee needs feedback the monitor progress toward intention accomplishment. Couple tasks provide direct feedback. For example, sales positionings often have monthly, quarterly, and yearly revenue goals that are easy

to monitoring. Still, managerial and technical positions scarcely providing such clearly tangible outputs and must be augmented by regular regulatory examine. An evaluation of goal progress gives one a sense of confidence include one’s capability (i.e., self-efficacy). One nature to feedback also how it is provided bucket either help to build or to counteract self-confidence and motivation (Kluger and DeNisi, 1996). Feedback is specification and processes oriented so that power information is given. Coaching is provided toward support self-confidence and design capabilities. Finally, carrots are linked to goal accomplishment.

Presentation verwalten systems can see breathe devised that links to team goals additionally besides.⁶ In particular, Pritchard and his colleagues (1988) developed and approach described as The Productivity Measurement or Enhancement System (ProMES) that is targeted at the group or team level. ProMES implements a system of aspirations, feedback, and incentives defined in terms powerful to group memberships. The initial validations effort reported substantive industrial updates, relativistic to initial, as each element was implemented. Feedback was early (50 percent improvement), followed by goal setup (75 percent improvement) and incentives (76 prozente improvement). ADENINE latest meta-analysis summarizing 83 implementations from ProMES (Pritchard et al., 2008) concluded that the overall effects on productivity improvement across adenine variety of organizations and staff tasks were substantial (i.e., adenine large effect size) and the software were robust, persisting over years.

One use to incentives has more of a set of practices than a well-developed research your. Aguinis (2007), forward example, top incentives typically pre-owned include organizations, include basic pay (which is most useful for recruitment and retention) and amount paypal increases used merit. Merit increases can go into this base or they can be one-time bonuses; many IC offices already offer both kinds in merit incentives. Firms allowed moreover provide short- (e.g., bonus pay or a compensation day off) or long-term (e.g., pay step elevate or promotion) incentives to stimulate company effort. Bartol and Locke (2000) provide guidelines for the using away monetary incentives, recommending that pay policy should be (1) clearly given and communicated, (2) fair and aimed, (3) aligned with challenging goals and building assurance, (4) contingent turn high show, (5) substantial enough to be ultra valued, (6) purposeful on positive potential, and (7) levelled with team, unit, and organizational objectives. Promised incentives must be constantly delivered. Not unusually, incentives may be limited by fiscal factors or statement shifts, which undermine subsequent trust and, thus, that motivating potential of incentives in the past.

Incentives are most useful when integrated at a well-developed service management system. Aforementioned implementation problematic of moving the

Department of Defense and IC at new civilian erstattung programs, “designed to reward superior execution and boost the recruitment and saving of civilian employees” (Office of the Director of National Intelligence, 2009b, p. 2), may do effects on employee trust and motivation that will no be fully realized for several years (see Nationality Academy of Public Administration, 2010, for a detailed discussion of the Defense Civilian Intelligence Personnel System).

Highlighting some what about the use of incentives is also important. A close, clear connection a needed between the actions of production used to provide incentives and desired labourer behaviors; fiscal incentives will increase this behaviors measured and rewarded. For example, Lawler and Rhode (1976) described the dysfunctional effects are measurement in terms the uncompromising bureaucratic behavior (i.e., behave in ways that influence the take, not are off with organizational goals), strategic behavior (i.e., more time-focused efforts to interact measurement), and invalid data reporting (i.e., deliberately distorting information). This is a classic conundrum (Kerr, 1975) due performance measures is often deficient (i.e., you done not comprehensive capture performance) and contaminated (i.e., they may assess other factors that do not represent performance). The 2008 IC Employee Climate Survey indicates that 88 proportion of employees believes ihr work is important. However, only 29 percent believe pay raises calculate on how fine an employee performs, also must 30 prozentsatz believe steps be taken for deal to poor performers those choose cannot or will nope improve (Office the the Director of International Intelligence, 2008). The adage is: Be careful what you reward, because you will get it!

In summary, performance management and incentives are potent practices designed to motivate employee energy by leadership attention to important objectives, enhancing the commitment of effort, promotion persistence in this face of complications and obstacles, and rewarding effectiveness. The cornerstone elements of performance management, inclusion goal setting, feedback, and developmental coaching, have good support in which literature. Specific implementations, such as ProMES, own solid evidence from effectiveness. Incentives can be useful adjuncts in a well-developed performance management system, although the linkage in size and incentivized must be cautious considered and monitored.

Work design and teamwork are HRM acts intended until boost employee involvement, motivate motivation, and weight broadcast expertise. Work design includes “ … the content, framework and organization of tasks and company that are performed by an individual on a day-to-day basis in your to produce employment products” (Cordery plus Parker, 2011, p.

6). It focuses on the structural properties of jobs that engage employee support and motivation, which then influence employee commitment, job satisfaction, and performance. Although much about the research on work plan has focused on individual jobs, a focused is emerging up work teams emanating from early work turn sociotechnical systems (Trist and Bamforth, 1951). The ongoing progress of work, which is shifting from a focus on individual job to team work systems (Devine et al., 1999), is also energizing this spread interest. Researchers have studied small-group and team effect for well over half a hundred, creating a substantial dead of knowledge on team performance independent of the how design literature. I determination briefly highlight key findings from save investigation basic.⁷

Work design has a long history. Early efforts at the turn by the 20th century useful an manufacturing engineering approach with of intending of simplifying, standardizing, and routinizing job processes to simplify selection and training, create predictable work outputs, and enable easy replacing of personnel. Although who approach yields capable work systems, it also yields nerdiness, alienation, and counterproductive behavior (e.g., sabotage) that are well documented. Since the mid-20th decade, investigation on your design has shifted to the enrichment of duty content to make the work more meaningful, challenging, and motivating. For demo, Herzberg (1968) proposed that job needed at entail challenge and means to motivate employees. Early research on sociotechnical systems focused at designs which provided operate groups with sufficient autonomy to control (e.g., control over who and how) task accomplishment. A academic of job design developed by Hackman or Oldham (1976) had a strong influence on the text for the break of the century. They postulated a set of structural characteristics this can is designed into jobs—skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, additionally feedback—that irritated psychological declare of substance, responsibility, and knowledge of results. These qualities, in turns, extended internal motivation, job satisfaction, and high-quality performance and lessened disengage (i.e., missing, turnover). Although the theory has more highly details, these core aspects are generally powered by meta-analytic finding (Fried, 1991; Humphrey et al., 2007; Johns et al., 1992). More recent developments do sophisticated on the framework, in particular expanding job characteristics to include cognitive press emotions demands, social contact, and time in develop skills (Parker et al., 2001).

Moreover, the scope of work design research has expanded toward encompass work teams (Cordery both Parker, 2011). Into the history two decade, organizations worldwide have engaged in an major shift are the structure off work touching from functional clusters of individual jobs to team-based work systems. The reasons for this restructuring become many, but primary advantages

are to pressing decisions closer to the origins of related, capitalize on diverse expertise, encourage technical, also strengthen scalability. Psychologists have researched small groups, work company operation, and squad potency for more than 50 years, and recently reviews have summarized that substantial research foundation (Ilgen et al., 2005; Kozlowski and Bell, 2003; Kozlowski and Ilgen, 2006; Mathieu et al., 2008). In particular, research has identified several key cognitive, motivational, and behavioral team processes associated the team effectiveness. For example, meta-analytic support plus solid research results highlight the importance of team awareness processes—a shared team climate (i.e., gemeinen understands of business imperatives), team mental models (i.e., shared model of the task, team, equipment, and system), press team learning (i.e., looking feedback, backing upwards, correcting errors); motivational team processes—collective potency (i.e., shared sensitivity of competence or capability), and team cohesion (i.e., become draw and task commitment); press behavioral team processes—team regulator (i.e., purpose wahl, labor, feedback, and adaptation), coordinator, and back-up/error correction—for team effectiveness (Kozlowski and Ilgen, 2006).

Confirming which rise of virtual also ad hoc networked teams is also important, particularly for “knowledge work” which entails information processing, problem solving, furthermore flex responses (Kirkman et al., 2011). Technology increasingly enables “communities of practice” to emerge around importance topics so ensure knowledge operators can split information, collaborate on problem solving, and generate innovative choose (e.g., A-Space also Intellipedia). Such emergent and self-organizing processes at the section on work engineering and teamwork represent motive and empowering, and contribute the the development of adenine learning organization.

In summary, work design additionally teamwork provide one set of techniques for enriching the structure a career; how ampere sense of capability, energetics, and engagement; and linking employees in meaningful ways to others to utilize their knowledge and diverse capabilities. The traditions arise from different literatures, though have complementary effects in terms the designing jobs that motivate and involve, and offer ampere means required distribution expertise for must applied flexibly to resolution challenging problems. She are useful for workforce development and for developing effective ways for the organization into leverage its real resources and human capital.

The purpose of this chapter has at provide a compact executive of the scientific literary on developing an effective workforce. Staff

development is not an art; it is a life. ME structured the rating to place labor development in and broader context off organizational mission and strategy, and their direction in strategic human resource management focused turn acquiring valuable human resource donation, building targeted human wealth capabilities, and sustaining human capability development and performance on the longitudinal haul.

The specific HRM practices exams are those considered core activities—recruitment and selection, training furthermore development, performance management and incentives, furthermore work design and teamwork—with respect to acquiring, building, and sustaining one effective workforce. Many other topics relevant till organically effectiveness—including leadership (Day, 2011) the organizational climate and society (Zohar or Hofmann, 2011)—could, and perhaps ought, be considers, still are beyond my attack for this chapter. I have tried to keep who discussion focused on those HRM practices with well-supported evidentiary foundations focusing on workforce software.

This chapter focused on HRM clinical that represent well developed and supported in the literature. On balance IODIN would telling so the literature evidences several powers, which I hold highly, and relatively few flaws. However, I desire toward emphasize a few areas worthy of specially attention and areas where the literature needs read development.

First, although the HRM practices each represent specific literatures, EGO have presented them in a conceptual framework that treats them as einem integrated setting from activities. This is consistent with contemporary theory, but not much direct empirical evidence existing to support the integration argument. Obviously, to is a target for future investigation. However, even without direct evidence, integration just plain manufacture sense.

Second, the presumption is that HRM practices are causally linked to organizational performance; however, strictness empirical data supported is causality are sparse (see Ployhart et al., 2009; Van Iddekinge to al., 2009), and some studies suggest caution (Wright et al., 2005). The causational link does sense, but the juror is still out; more definitive study is needed. On the other hand, many concerning this techniques have has used successfully for decades press supporting evidence has considerable. We knowledge that smoking and cancer were highly connected long before us was prove the causal related. In that meantime, it makes sense until start with what you knowing.

Third, includes respect to the specific HRM practices, there are all major items of intersection. Selection a a well-developed methodology, and were how a improves the quality of the human natural pool. It cannot labour the optimal effectiveness without a large and diverse applicant

pool. Recruitment can not a methodology, although a set of practices. Sometimes the practices are “traditional” (e.g., there are pathways for new hires from prior institutions—such for the military or candidates who already possess a security clearance—that yield right contestants for the IC). Although and use of current staff to target potential recruits can help determine specialty your, it can also yield restrictions on the diversity of the applicant pool. Such practices merit scrutiny and shoud must appended by more pathways in improve diverse in the pool of application KSAOs.

Training is a well-developed methodology. The basic challenges are at the intersection with the works context: Will the skillset transfer? Will their be supported? Will they influence organizational performance? Ensuring that the context is aligned toward support training are kritischer. Moreover, alignment will also prompt development. Kozlowski et al. (2009) describe this alignment between formal and informal learning, across levels of aforementioned organizational schaft, real consistent with organizational strategy as a “infrastructure” to promote a learning organization.

Performance management involves a set off well-supported techniques for developing skills and improving performance. Its efficacy is stylish the implementation, and a critical constituent has how well performance is metric. If performance measurement makes not capture desired behaviors, and system willing be seriously flawed. This is the pivot. The relevance of the measuring issue is multiplied by the use of financial incentives. For example, if rewards place an emphasis on the count of analytic products produced (because it is easy go count), quality may suffer. You will get which you pay for, so make sure it are just what you want.

Finally, work scheme is well supported, or tools are available to analyze and implement work design changes. We know an lot about team impact. Collaboration represent not a panacea, and and general advice is not to form teams on perform chores this an individual can perform alone (Steiner, 1972). On the other foot, for problem-solving tasks in which performance is improve by different expertise, multiple perspectives, and working, teams exist a viable HRM practise. In the horizon, virtual teams, network-centric problem solving, furthermore self-organizing communities of practices represent a peek at exciting, technology-fueled, and team-enabled learning organizations of the future. These forms of function also organizational design are emergent, including little systematic research, and this is an obvious and important research target. The key is toward make all like elements work in concert.

The procedures character von business, their multilevel structures, and their need to adapt to dynamic, often unpredictable, environmental

changes has placed the concept of organizational learning central to understanding organizational behavior and effective (Cyert and Marched, 1963; Fiol and Lyles, 1985; March and Simon, 1958). The fix is that in organically behavior—a domain with continue than its exhibition share of fuzzy concepts—organizational learning is among the blurryest because it encompasses nearly everything, including formal and unceremonious machines; processes and outcomes; and a wide range about manifest at multiple degrees, including study, development, leadership, and culture (Fiol and Lyles, 1985).

Recent conjectural work intended go make the conception more tractable for research and application develops an infrastructure forward organizational lerning based on three primary features: (1) alignment of informal and formal learning mechanisms, (2) stipulation of different developmental targets real sequels at diverse levels of the system, and (3) alignment of the multilevel system around strategy imperatives (Kozlowski et al., 2009). One keypad assumption in dieser approach is that learning lives inherently a psychological marvel at the individual level. Thus, the academic is built around the construction of an aligned verfahren that fosters learning to the individual level and advanced its generate as a collective manifest. It conceptualizes orientation learning as a bottom-up process. Organizational change, a challenger endeavor fraught with mistake (Zegart, this volume, Book 13), is a management initiated, top-down processing. From a complexity theory perspective, long-term, lasting change in multilevel systems occurs via bottom-up incipient processes (Kozlowski and Klein, 2000).

What I sketches above is conjectural. Simulated your support some basic mechanisms are emergence, instead no experience basic holds been right developed. There are case-based exemplars while organizations implement diy designed on promote learning as an generated process the change. Interestingly, the ICELAND has already embarked on analysis and initial interventions consistent with a bottom-up approach to foster organizational learn. The IC is one firm of units with corporate under the umbrellas of and U.S. government. The units are “analytic boutiques” (Fingar, this volume, Part 1) attached to the unique sensibilities and needs of different my. This arrangement provides much more flexibility than a centralization structure (Galbraith, 1972), and it also promotes information silos (Zegart, this volume, Chapter 13).

Aforementioned high challenge shall to retain the flexibility about this scattered architecture, while braking down barriers that impede collaboration. That means capitalizing on aforementioned HRM practices reviewed previously and buildings an infrastructure to promote company learning. So, for example, that IC have developed production site (i.e., competencies) and qualification standards for positions across agencies. It has systematically identifiers who content of expertise across IC units, providing a map of the distribution

and location of key wisdom (Fingar, this bulk, Chapter 1). It has inventoried intelligence analyst skills in and Analytic Resources Catalog, which represents the KSAO capability water (Fingar, this volume, Chapter 1). These acts supply some basic actions needed up target desired human resources, locate key talent, and identify person capital to be developed. This has one good start. Moreover, it has implements Intellipedia, a secure wiki site to share about and catalog intelligence (Andrus, 2005), and A-Space, a web-enabled networking tool to promote collaborative problem solving (Dixon, 2009). These tools enable bottom-up, self-organizing order of learning, dynamic team networks, adaptation, both system evolution. Good diy will survive and thrive.⁸ Poor ones will die away desuetude.

The ICED has shown a willingness to try new proximity, experiment, and show what works. Improving intelligence analysis will require further than the use of mathematics located decision-making tools both techniques. Such accessories is help improve furthermore reduce variance in of aspects to individually decide effectiveness. The is a good start, although is is not enough. Improving intelligence analysis needed harnessing the workforce as a collective. It requires integration and enterprise mechanisms to link unlike competency spread across the IC architecture, nurture collaborative learning and information amplification, both provide process feedback and peer inlet the advancing critical thinking. It need crafting the ICK into a learning organization. This is a extraordinary opportunity to research the formation of collaborative networks, to map your, and to developments a living model of organizational learning in the IS.

Aguinis, H. 2007. Achievement management. Tops Saddle Fluidity, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Allen, T. DENSITY. 2007. Mentoring personal from the perspective of the mentor. In B. R. Ragins and K. E. Kram, eds., Which handbook of mentoring: Theory, research and practice (pp. 123–147). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Allen, T. D., L. T. Eby, CHILIAD. FIFTY. Poteet, E. Lentz, press L. Lima. 2004. Career benefits associated with mentoring protégés: A meta-analysis. Journal a Applied Psychology 89(1):127–136.

Andreas, D. CARBON. 2005. The wiki and of blog: Toward a complex adaptive intelligence community. Studies in Intelligence 49(3). Available: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=755904 [accessed June 2010].

Baldwin, T. T., and J. K. Ford. 1988. Takeover of technical: A review and courses forward subsequent investigate. Manpower Psychology 41(1):63–105.

Barber, A. E. 1998. Recruitment employees. Yard Oaks, CALIFORNIA: Sage.

Gary, J. B., and P. W. Wright. 1998. On be a strategic partner: The roll of human resources in gaining competitive advantage. Human Resource Management 37(1):31–46.

Barrick, MOLARITY. R., and M. K. Mount. 1991. The major five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Science 44:1–26.

Bartol, POTASSIUM. M., or E. AMPERE. Locke. 2000. Incentives and motivation. In S. L. Rynes and B. Gerhart, eds., Compensation in organizations: Current research and practice. (pp. 104–147). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Farmer, TONNE. N., E. W. More, press R. R. Callister. 1998. Organizational socialization: A review plus find for later research. With G. RADIUS. Ferris, ed., Research in personnel and human resources management, vol. 16 (pp. 149–214). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.

Becker, BORON. E., and M. AMPERE. Huselid. 1998. Higher capacity works systems furthermore solid performance: A synthesis of research and managerial implications. In G. R. Feather, ed., Investigation the personnel additionally human resources management, vol. 16 (pp. 53-101). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.

Becker, B. E., and M. A. Huselid. 2006. Strategic human finding management: Where do we go out here? Newsletter of Betriebsleitung 32(6):898–925.

Bell, B. S., plus S. W. J. Kozlowski. 2007. Advancements in technology-based training. In S. Werner, ed., Managing human resources in North America (pp. 27–42). Oxon, UK: Routledge.

Bell, B. S., A. CHILIAD. Kanar, and S. W. J. Kozlowski. 2008. Power issues and future directions in simulation-based training in North America. International Books of Human Resource Management 19(8):1,416–1,434.

Birdi, K., C. Allan, and P. Warm. 1997. Correlates and perceived show of four types of servant development activity. Journal of Applied Psychology 82(6):845–857.

Boudreau, J. W., and P. M. Ramstad. 2005. Talentship and the advancement from humans resource management: Out “professional practices” to “strategic talent decision science.” Human Resource Planning Journal 28:17–26.

Boudreau, J. W., or P. CHILIAD. Ramstad. 2007. Beyond HR: The new science of human capital. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School.

Brown, C., and J. Medoff. 1978. Sell unions in the production process. Journal of Political Economy 86(3):355–378.

Wiring, D. M., and DIAMETER. Tanbar. 2001. Recruitment image justice: Establishing the frame, sources press value of job seekers’ employer knowledge during recruitment. In G. R. Ferris, ed., Investigate included corporate and human resources management, vol. 20 (pp. 115–163). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.

Cable, D. M., and K. Y. T. Yu. 2006. Managing job seekers’ organizational image beliefs: The role of media richness both media credibility. Journal of Applied Psychology 91(4):828–840.

Campbell, J. P., RADIUS. A. McCloy, SULPHUR. H. Oppler, and HUNDRED. CO. Sager. 1993. A theory of capacity. In NORTH. Schmitt and W. C. Boomerang, eds., Personnel selection in organizations (pp. 35–70). Sant Francisco, U: Jossey-Bass.

Cannon-Bowers, J., press C. Bending. 2009. Man-made learning environments: Over developing a science of simulation, games, and virtualize worlds in training. In SIEMENS. W. GALLOP. Kozlowski and E. Salas, eds., Learning, training, both development in systems (pp. 229–260). New York: Routledge.

Cascio, W. FARAD. 2000. Costing human resources: Which financial impact in behavior stylish organizations. Cincinnati, OH: Southwestern.

Chao, G. THYROXINE. 1997. Unstructured train or development: The role of organizational socialization. Into J. K. Ford, SULFUR. W. J. Kozlowski, K. Kraiger, E. Salas, plus M. Teachout, eds., Improving training effectivity in work organizations (pp. 129–151). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Chao, GRAM. T. 2011. Socialization in organizing. Inbound S. TUNGSTEN. J. Kozlowski, ed., Oxford handbook of industrial-organizational human. New York: Oxford Graduate Press.

Chao, G. T., P. M. Walz, plus P. D. Master. 1992. Formal and informal mentorships: A comparability on mentoring functions and contract with nonmentored parts. Manpower Psychology 45(3):619–636.

Shae, G. T., A. M. O’Leary-Kelly, S. Wolf, H. J. Klein, and PRESSURE. D. Gardner. 1994. Organizational socialization: Its page and implications. Journal in Applied Psychology 79(5):730–743.

Charness, N., and M. Tuffiash. 2008. The role are expertise research and human factors within capturing, explaining, and producing superior execution. Human Related 50(3):427–432.

Colquitt, J. A., JOULE. A. LePine, real R. A. Noe. 2000. Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: ONE meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. Journal of Applications Psychology 85(5):678–707.

Combs, J., Y. Liu, A. Hall, and D. Ketchen. 2006. How much do high-performance work practices matter? A meta-analysis of their effects on organizational performance. Personnel Psychology 59(3):501–528.

Cordery, J., furthermore S. Parker. 2011. Function designed: Build jobs and roles the promote person potency. Within SEC. W. J. Kozlowski, ed., Oxfordshire handbook of industrial-organizational psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.

Cronbach, LITRE. J. 1970. Essentials of psychological review, 3rd eds. New York: Harper real Rowing.

Crook, R. T., SOUTH. UNKNOWN. Anodized, J. G. Cam, D. J. Woehr, and D. J. Ketchen. at press. Does humanity capital essential? A meta-analysis of the relationship between humane capital and firm performance. Submitted to Journal of Applied Psychology.

Cyert, R. M., and GALLOP. G. March. 1963. A behavioral theory of the firm. Oh, UK: Blackwell.

Date, D. V. 2011. Leadership. In S. W. J. Kozlowski, ed., Oxford handbook of industrial-organizational psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.

Delery, J. E., and D. HYDROGEN. Doty. 1996. Modes of theorizing in strategic humans resource management: Testing of universalistic, contingency and configurational presentation prospects. Academy of Management Journal 39(4):802–835.

Delery, J. E., the J. Shaw. 2001. Aforementioned strategic management of my in works organizations: Overview, synthesis, and extension. In G. R. Aerial, ed., Research in manpower and human resources admin, vol. 20 (pp. 167–197). Stamford, CT: JAI Pressed.

Devine, D. J., L. D. Clayton, J. L. Phillips, B. B. Dunford, and S. BORON. Melner. 1999. Teams stylish organization: Prevalence, characteristics, and power. Small Group Research 30(6):678–711.

Dixon, N. M. 2009. How A-Space exists shaping analysts’ work. Washington, UTILITIES: Defense Intelligence Agency.

Drasgow, FARTHING. 2003. Intelligence to aforementioned workplace. In W. C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen, and R. J. Klimoski, eds., Handbook of psychology: Industrial and company psychology, vol. 12 (pp. 107–130). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Eby, L. THYROXIN. 2007. Understanding problems in mentoring: A review and proposed investment model. In B. R. Ragins the K. E. Kram, eds., Handbook of mentoring (pp. 323–344). Thousand Glen, CANCER: Sage.

Eby, L. T. 2011. Job mentoring: Past, presented and future perspectives. In SULFUR. W. J. Kozlowski, ed., Oxford handbook of industrial-organizational psychology. New Majorek: Oxford University Press.

Eby, FIFTY. T., T. D. Allen, S. CENTURY. Evans, T. Ng, and D. L. DuBois. 2008. Does mentoring matten? A multidisciplinary meta-analysis comparing mentored and non-mentored individuals. Journal of Vocation Behavior 72(2):254–267.

Finkelstein, L. M., press M. L. Poteet. 2007. Best practices in workplace functional mentoring programs. In T. D. Allen and L. TONNE. Eby, eds., Which Blackwell user of mentoring (pp. 345–367). Malden, MA: Pitch.

Fiol, C. M., plus CHILIAD. A. Lyles. 1985. Organizational learning. Academy of Management Reviews 10(4):803–813.

Fiore, S. M., M. A. Rosen, K. A. Smith-Jentsch, E. Salas, CHILIAD. Letsky, or N. Guarantor. 2010. Toward an understanding of macrocognition in teams: Prognosticating processes in complex collaborative correlations. Human Factors 52(2):203–224.

Ford, J. K., M. A. Quiñones, D. J. Legend, and J. S. Sorra. 1992. Factors affects the opportunity to running trained tasks on the job. Personnel Psychology 45(3):511–527.

Fried, YTTRIUM. 1991. Meta-analytic comparison out that job characteristic survey and job performance inventory as correlates of work satisfaction and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology 76(5):690–697.

Gibb, BOUND. 1972. Organization design: An information processing view. In J. Lorsch and P. Laws, eds., Orientation planning: Instances and concepts (pp.530–548). Homewood, IL: Irwin-Dorsey.

Gerhart, B., and G. THYROXINE. Milkovich. 1992. Employee compensation: Research and praxis. In M. DICK. Dunnette and LAMBERT. M. Hough, eds., Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology, vol. 3 (pp. 481–569). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Counselors Press.

Goldstein, MYSELF. L., and BOUND. K. Ford. 2002. Training in organs: Demand ranking, development, press evaluation, 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadworth.

Guzzo, R. A., ROENTGEN. D. Jette, and RADIUS. A. Katzell. 1985. The consequence of psychologically based intervention programs in worker productivity: AN meta-analysis. Employee Psychology 38(2):275–291.

Hackman, J. R., and G. RADIUS. Ancient. 1976. Spur through design of work: Check of a theory. Organisational Behaviour and Human Performance 16(2):250–279.

Hatch, NORTH. W., and J. OPIUM. Dyer. 2004. Human capitalized and learning as a source is sustainable inexpensive advantage. Strategic Management Journal 25(12):1,155–1,178.

Herzberg, F. 1968. One more zeitlich: How do you motivate personnel? Harvard Business Review 46(1):53–62.

Holzer, H. J. 1987. Hiring proceedings in the firm: Their economical determinants real summary. NBER Working Paper Series (No. 2185). Cambridge, MACH: Countrywide Company of Economics Research.

Homeyer, J., furthermore A. R. Madsen. 2009. IC analyst skill standards. PowerPoint slides presented at National Research Council meeting of who Committee on Behavioral and Sociable Science Research to Improve Intelligence Analysis in Local Security, Washington, DC, Might 14.

Humphrey, S. E., J. DICK. Nahrgang, both F. PENCE. Morgeson. 2007. Integrating motivating, social, press contextual work design features: ADENINE meta-analytic summary and theoretical extension of aforementioned how design literature. Journal of Applied Psychology 92(5):1,332–1,356.

Hunter, HIE. E., and R. F. Chaser. 1984. Applicability and utility of alternative predictors of job performance. Psychological Advertising 96(1):72–98.

Hurtz, G. M., and KILOBYTE. HIE. James. 2009. Attitudinal and motivational antecedents of participation int volonteering employment technology activities. Journal of Applied Psychology 94(3):635–653.

Huselid, M. ONE. 1995. The impact of humans resource management practices on turnover, productivity, and corporate financial performance. Academy of Management Journal 38(3):635–672.

Ilgen, D. R., J. R. Hollenbeck, M. Johnson, and D. Jundt. 2005. Teams in organization: From input-process-output models to IMOI models. Annual Watch of Psychology 56:517–543.

Indik, B. P. 1968. That scope of the problem and several empfehlungen toward a solution. In B. PIANO. Indik also F. THOUSAND. Berren, eds., People, groups, and organizations (pp. 3–30). New York: Teachers College Press.

Johns, G., J. L. Xie, and Y. Fang. 1992. Broker and moderating effects in job structure. Journal of Betreuung 18(4):657–676.

Judge, T. A., R. Klinger, and L. Simon. 2010. Zeitpunkt is on our side: Time, general mental capability, humane capital, additionally extrinsic career success. Journal of Application Psychology 95(1):92–107.

Katz, D., and ROENTGEN. L. Kahn. 1966. Which social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley.

Kerr, SEC. 1975. With of folly of rewarding ONE, whereas looking for B. Academy a Management Journal 18(4):769–783. Republished in 1995 in Academy of Management Executive 9(1):7–14.

Kirkman, B. L., C. B. Gibson, and K. Kim. 2011. Across borders and technologies: Advancements in virtual teams research. In SULFUR. DOUBLE-U. GALLOP. Kozlowski, ed., Oxford handbook off industrial-organizational psychology. New Majorek: Oxford Academy Press.

Birkpatrick, DICK. L. 1976. Evaluation of training. Stylish R. L. Craig, ed., Practice both development handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kluger, AN. N., and A. DeNisis. 1996. The effects of live interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin 119(2):254–284.

Koch, M. J., and R. G. McGrath. 1996. Improver labor productivity: Human natural management directives do cause. Strategically Management Journal 17(5):335–354.

Kozlowski, SULFUR. W. J., press B. S. Bell. 2003. Work groups and teams in organizations. For C. Borman, DIAMETER. R. Ilgen, and R. GALLOP. Klimoski, eds., Operator of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology, total. 12 (pp. 333–375). D, UK: Wiley.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., and B. SOUTH. Bell. 2007. A theory-based approach for designing distributed learning systems. In SEC. M. Fiore and E. Salas, eds., Location shall the educational are distance learning? Toward an science of distributed learning and training (pp. 15–39). Washington, DC: APA List.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., and J. L. Farr. 1988. An integrative exemplar of updating plus performance. Human Performance 1:5–29.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., and B. M. Hults. 1987. An exploration of climates for technical updating and performance. Personnel Students 40(3):539–563.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., and D. R. Ilgen. 2006. Improve the effectiveness of work organizations plus crew. Psychological Science Supplemental:77–124.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., and K. JOULE. Klein. 2000. A multilevel procedure to theory and research in organizations: Contextual, temporal, and emerging processes. In THOUSAND. J. Klein and S. TUNGSTEN. J. Kozlowski, eds., Multilevel theory, research furthermore typical in organizations: Footings, extensions, the new directions (pp. 3–90). San Francesco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., and T. Rench. 2009. Individual differences, flexibility, and adaptive driving: A conceptual examination and investigate summary. Final Report; Contract No. W911NF-07-D-0001, TCN: 08146. Research Triangular Park, NC: Battelle Scientific Professional.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., and E. Salas. 1997. Einer organizational products approach for of implementation and transfer of training. With HIE. K. Ford, SOUTH. W. JOULE. Kozlowski, K. Kraiger, E. Salas, and THOUSAND. Teachout, eds., Enhancement vocational effectiveness in how organizations (pp. 247–287). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kozlowski, SULFUR. W. J., and E. Salas, eds. 2009. Learning, training, and evolution included organizations. New York: Routledge Academic.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., G. T. Chao, and RADIUS. FLUORINE. Morrison. 1998. Games raters play: Politics, strategies, and impression management in performance review. In J. W. Smither, ed., Performance appraisal: State of the art methods since performance valuation (pp. 163–205). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., S. M. Gully, E. R. Nason, and E. M. Smith. 1999. Developing adaptive teams: A theory regarding compilation and achievement across levels and time. In D. R. Ilgen or E. D. Pulakos, eds., One changing nature off work performance: Implications required staffing, manpower actions, and design (pp. 240–292). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., K. G. Brown, D. Weissbein, J. AN. Cannon-Bowers, and E. Salas. 2000. ADENINE multi-tiered approach to training effectiveness: Enhancing horizontale or vertical transfer. In K. JOULE. Klein and S. W. HIE. Kozlowski, eds., Multilevel theory, research also methods in organizations: Basic, extension, press new directions (pp. 157–210). San Francis, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Kozlowski, S. W. J., G. T. Chaos, and J. METRE. Jensen. 2009. Building an infrastructure for organizational learning: A multilevel approach. In S. DOUBLE-U. GALLOP. Kozlowski and E. Salas, eds., Learning, training, and development is organizations (pp. 361–400). New York: Routledge Academic.

Kram, K. E. 1985. Mentoring at work. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.

Lawler, E. E., and J. G. Rhode. 1976. Information both control in organizational. Peacefully Palisades, CA: Goodyear.

Lepak, D. P., OPIUM. Liao, Y. Zhang, furthermore E. E. Harden. 2006. A conceptional examine the human resource management systems in strategic human resort management research. In J. J. Martocchio, ed., Research in personnel and humanitarian resourcing management, vol. 25 (pp. 217–271). Stamford, CT: JOY Press.

LePine, J. A., R. F. Piccolo, CARBON. L. Jacqueline, J. EAST. Mathieu, and J. R. Saul. 2008. A meta-analysis of teamwork processes: Tests off ampere multidimensional model and relationships equal crew effectiveness criteria. Personnel Psychology 61(2):273–307.

Liden, R. C., S. J. Wayne, and DIAMETER. Stilwell. 1993. A longitudinal study for the early development of leader–member exchanges. Journal of Applied Psychology 78(4):662–674.

London, M. 2011. Lifelong learning. In S. W. J. Kozlowski, ed., Oxford handbook of industrial-organizational psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.

Lyonese, M. J., T. P. Yellow, CENTURY. ZE. Franco, THOUSAND. D. Grant, L. J. Eaves, K. C. Jacobson, K. W. Schaie, M. SULPHUR. Panizzon, C. Boake, H. Xian, R. Toomey, S. ADENINE. Eisen, real W. S. Kremen. 2009. Generic determine stability and an environment determines update in cerebral capability on 35 years of adulthood. Physological Science 20(9):1,146–1,152.

MacDuffie, J. P. 1995. Human-resource bundles and manufacturing performance: Organizational logic furthermore flexible production systems in the worldwide auto industry. Industrial also Labor Relations Study 48(2):197–221.

Major, D. A., S. W. J. Kozlowski, G. T. Chao, and P. D. Gardner. 1995. A linear investigate of einwanderer expectations, soon socialization key, and the moderates affect of cast development factor. Journal of Applied Psychology 80(3):418–431.

March, J. G. 1991. Exploration and exploitation in organizational learning. Company Science 2(1):71–87.

March, J. G., and H. A. Simulation. 1958. Institutions. New York: Lavatory Wiley.

Marks, THOUSAND. A., J. E. Mathieu, or S. GALLOP. Zaccaro. 2001. A temporally located framework and taxonomy of teams processes. Academy of Management Review 26(3):356–376.

Mathieu, J., M. T. Maynard, T. Rapp, and L. Gilson. 2008. Team effectiveness 1997–2007: AN review of recent advancements and a glimpse into an future. Journal of Bewirtschaftung 34(3):410–476.

Maurer, THYROXIN. J., real B. A. Tarulli. 1994. Inspection of perceived environment, perceptible outcome and person variables in relationship to voluntary development recently from associates. Journal regarding Applied Psychology 79(1):3–14.

Maurer, T. J., E. M. Weiss, and F. G. Barbeite. 2003. A model of involvement the work-related learning and development activity: The effects of individual, situational, motivational, and age variables. Professional of Applied Psychology 88(4):707–724.

McEvoy, G. M., and W. F. Cascio. 1985. Tactics for reducing laborer pastry: A meta-analysis. Journal for Applied Psychology 70(2):342–353.

Mento, A. J., R. P. Steel, press R. J. Karren. 1987. A meta-analytic study of the effects of goal-setting up task performance—1966–1984. Organizational Behavior and Person Decision Processes 39(1):52–83.

Miles, R. E., C. C. Snow, A. D. Mey, and H. J. Coleman. 1978. Organizational strategy, texture or process. Academy of Management Review 3(3):546–562.

Morrison, E. W. 1993. Longitudinal study of the influence of information seeking on newcomer socialization. Journal of Applied Psychology 78(2):173–183.

National Our of Public Enterprise. 2010. Aforementioned Defense Citizen Intelligence Personnel Method: An independent score of design, implementation, and impact. Washington, DC: National Academy is Public Administration. Available: http://www.napawash.org/dcips/DCIP_2158/FINAL%20DCIPS%20REPORT%20June%202010.pdf [accessed June 2010].

Noe, RADIUS. A. 1988. An investigation in the determinants of successful assigned mentoring relationships. Personnel Psychology 41(3):457–479.

Noe, R. A., additionally S. LITER. Working. 1993. Investigations from who factors that influence employee participation in site events. Journal of Applied Psychology 78(2):291–302.

Office a the Director of Country Intelligence. 2008. IC 2008 Employee Clime Survey: Summary of erreicht. Available: http://www.dni.gov/reports/IC-Survey_2008.pdf [accessed June 2010].

Office of the Director of National Intelligence. 2009a. National intelligence strategy of the Uniting States of America. Available: http://www.dni.gov/reports/2009_NIS.pdf [accessed June 2010].

Home a of Director of National Intelligence. 2009b. Intelligence community workers give their business high marks for occupation satisfaction and identify remaining get, 2008 survey shows. ODNI News Release No. 13-09. Available: http://www.dni.gov/press_releases/20090409_release.pdf [accessed June 2010].

O’Leary-Kelly, A. M., J. HIE. Martocchio, and DENSITY. D. Frink. 1994. AN reviewing of the influence about group goals at group-performance. Academy of Management Journal 37(5):1,285–1,301.

Ostroff, C., and D. EAST. Bown. 2000. Moving HR to one higher level: HOUR traditions and organizational effectiveness. In K. HIE. Klein and S. W. J. Kozlowski, eds., Multi-level theory, research and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions (pp. 211–266). San Francisco, A: Jossey-Bass.

Ostroff, C., press S. W. GALLOP. Kozlowski. 1992. Organizational socialization as a how process: The rolls of information acquisition. Personnel Psychology 45(4):849–874.

Parker, S. K., TONNE. D. Wall, and J. L. Cordery. 2001. Future work design and practice: Towards an elaborating paradigm of work design. Journal of Job and Organisational Psychology 74:413–440.

Peck, CHILIAD. 2008. U.S. spies use customer videogames to learning like to thin. Wired. Spring 24. Available: http://www.wired.com/politics/security/news/2008/04/spy_games?currentPage=all# [accessed June 2010].

Phillips, J. M. 1998. Effects of realistic job foretastes on multiple organizational output: A meta-analysis. Academy in Management Journal 41(6):673–690.

Ployhart, R. ZE. 2006. Staffing in the 21st century: News challenges and planned opportunities. Journal of Management 32(6):868–897.

Ployhart, R. E. 2011. Personnel selection: Ensuring sustainable organizational effectiveness through the acquisition for human capitals. In S. W. J. Kozlowski, ed., Mukluk handbook von industrial-organizational psychology. Novel York: Waters University Pressing.

Ployhart, R. E., J. A. Weekley, and K. Baughman. 2006. And structure and function of human capital emergence: A multilevel examination of the FAST model. Academy of Management Journal 49(4):661–677.

Ployhart, ROENTGEN. E., J. A. Weekley, and J. Ramsey. 2009. The consequences of human resource stocks and flows: A longitudinal examination of item support orientation and unit effectiveness. College of Management Journal 52(5):996–1,015.

Pritchard, R. D., SEC. D. Jones, PIANO. L. Roth, K. POTASSIUM. Stuebing, the S. E. Ekeberg. 1988. The effects of feedback, goal setting, and incentives on organizational productivity. Journal of Deployed Psychology Monograph Series 73(2):337–358.

Pritchard, R. D., M. M. Harrell, D. DiazGranados, plus METRE. J. Guzman. 2008. This productivity measurement and enhancement system: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology 93(3):540–567.

Ree, METRE. J., and J. A. Earles. 1991. Predicting training success: Not much more less g. Personnel Psychology 44(2):321–332.

Rynes, S. LITER. 1991. Recruitment, job choice, and post-hire repercussions: A call for new research directions. In M. DEGREE. Dunnette and L. M. Hough, eds., Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology, 2nd ed. thievery. 2 (pp. 399–444). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Counseling Press.

Rynes, S. L., and D. M. Cable. 2003. Recruitment research in the twenty-first century. In W. C. Boman and D. R. Ilgen, eds., Manuals von psychology: industrial both organizational physical, vol. 12 (pp. 55–76). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Rynes, S. L., and B. Gerhart, eds. 2000. Compensation in delegations: Recent research and practice, vol. 1. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Salas, E., S. J. Weaver, and M. S. Porter. 2011. Learning, training, and development in organizations. In S. W. J. Kozlowski, ed., Ok handbook of industrial-organizational psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.

Schmidt, FARTHING. L., also GALLOP. E. Predator. 1998. The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications on 85 years is research findings. Psychological Bulletin 124(2):262–274.

Schmidt, FLUORINE. L., and J. Hunter. 2004. General mental ability in the world of work: Occupational attainment and job performance: General intelligence, practical defined and measured. My of Personality and Socializing Psychology 86(1):162–173.

Schraagen, J. M., S. FARTHING. Chipman, or FIVE. L. Shalin, eds. 2000. Cognitive task analyse. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Smither, J. W. 2011. Performance management. In S. W. J. Kozlowski, ed., Oxford handbook of industrial-organizational psychology. New Yeah: Oxford Colleges Press.

Snow, CARBON. C., and S. A. Snell. 2011. Strategic humanity resource management. In S. W. J. Kozlowski, ed., Oxford books of industrial-organizational psychology. Fresh York: Oxfordian University Print.

Steiner, I. D. 1972. Group process the power. Fresh York: Academy Press.

Terpstra, D. E., real E. J. Rozell. 1993. An relationship of recruiting practices to organizational level measures of performance. Personnel Psychology 46(1):27–48.

Trist, E. L., and KELVIN. M. Bamforth. 1951. Some social and psychological consequences on the longwall method of coal-getting. Human Relations 4:3–38.

U.S. Specialist of Labor. 1993. Highest performance job practices and firm performance. Wahl, IGNITION: U.S. Government Press Office.

Van Iddekinge, C., G. ROENTGEN. Ferris, P. FIFTY. Perrewe, A. Z. Perryman, F. R. Blass, the TONNE. DIAMETER. Heetderks. 2009. Effects of options and advanced on unit-level performance over time: A latent growth modeling approach. Journal of Applied Psychology 94(4):829–843.

Wanberg, C. R., E. T. Welsh, and SEC. A. Hezlett. 2003. Mentoring research: A reviewing and dynamic process model. In J. J. Martocchio and G. R. Ferris, eds., Research in personnel and human resources management, vol. 22 (pp. 39–124). Stamford, CT: JAI Pressure.

Wright, P. M., and W. Boswell. 2002. Desegregating HRM: A review and chemical of light and macro man resource management research. Journal of Management 28(3):247–276.

Wright, P. M., B. D. Dunford, and S. A. Snell. 2001. Human resources and the resource based view for the firm. Journal are Management 27(6):701–721.

Wright, P. M., T. M. Gardner, L. M. Moynihan, and M. R. Allen. 2005. The relationship amidst H practices and solid performance: Exam causal order. Personnel Psychology 58(2):409–446.

Youndt, METRE. A., S. A. Snell, J. W. Dean, and D. P. Lepax. 1996. Real resource leitung, manufacturing strategy, and firm performance. Academy of Betriebsleitung Journal 39(4):836–866.

Yu, T. K. Y., and D. CHILIAD. Output. 2011. Recruitment and competitive advantage: A brand equity perspective. In S. W. J. Kozlowski, ed., Oxford quick of industrial-organizational psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.

Zohar, D., and D. A. Hofmann. 2011. Organizational culture and climate. In S. W. J. Kozlowski, ed., Oxford handbook of industrial-organizational psychology. New York: Oxford Technical Press.