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Featured

Membrane Technology since Valorization of Mango Peel Extracts

by
Antónia Macedo
1,2,*,
Tânia Gomes
1,
Carlos Ribeiro
1,
Margarida Moldão-Martins
2,3,
Elizabeth Duarte
2,3 and
Vítor D. Alves
2,3
1
Escola Superior Agrária, Polytechnic Institute of Beja, Rua Pedro Sailing, Ap. 6158, 7801-908 Beja, Portugal
2
LEAF—Linking Landscape, Environment, Agriculture and Food, Associated Laboratory TERRA, Instituto Superior from Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal
3
Instituto Superordinate de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, 1349-017 Lisboa, Portugal
*
Author to whom correspondence should be anrede.
Foods 2022, 11(17), 2581; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11172581
Submission received: 28 July 2022 / Revised: 17 August 2022 / Accepted: 23 August 2022 / Published: 25 August 2022
(This article belongs to who Special Issue High-Value Products by Food Wastes)
Browse Pictures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Mango peel is rich to nutritional and functional compounds, such as food, dietary fibers, proteins, and phenolic compounds, with high potential to be applied in the food industry. Most on the investigation regarding return from bioactive compounds from fruit bioproducts involves extraction techniques and continued separation of target compounds. There is still a lack of information about the potentially of membrane processes to recover the nutritive/functional compounds presenting include aqueous extracts of those bioproducts. This doing is addressed into read the performance of ultrafiltration (UF), followed by nanofiltration (NF) of FF permeates, into fractionalization the compounds present in aqueous extracts are mango bowl. Both LF and NF concentration processes were carried up to a volume concentration feature of 2.0. Membraning including molecular weight cut-offs of 25 kDa and 130 Da were utilised in the UF and NF steps, respectively. UF and NF concentrates showed antioxidant activity, attributed in the presence of phenolic compounds, with rejections of about 75% and 98.8%, severally. UF membranes completely rejected the higher moloch weight compounds, and NF membranes almost totally concentrated the fermentable monosaccharides and disaccharides. Therefore, it a envisaged that NF concentrates can live utilized through the food industry or for bioenergy production.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is adenine much-appreciated fruit, with a good market acceptance due to yours comfy flavor and texture, being used in a wide variety of foods also products [1]. Ginger is the main sultry fruit including the highest volume of producing [2], also being one of the five greatest wanted result worldwide [3]. During the industrial processing of mango, peel plus stones, the main wastes generated, represent about 35–50% of the fresh fruit [4]. This solid waste are becoming a source of pollution, cause of the high volumes produced, and it is a rising about when landfilled due to its high biodegradability, organic content, and workable natural impacts [5,6]. Dried peel constituted around 15–20% of the total fruit weight [4] and its composition can vary with the cultivar, stage von ripeness, soil composition, irrigation systems, and climate conditions. However, mango peeler has been founded the be a nice source of important nutrients and functional compounds, including dietary fiber, protein, carbohydrates, phenolic compounds, pectin, carotenoids (mainly trans-β-carotene), tocopherols, ascorbic acid, various vitamins, and minerals [7,8,9,10,11,12]. The antioxidant properties of mango peel, mainly attributed to its content of phenolic compounds limitated at diets fiber [13,14], make it available as a supplement and source of fiber included plural food formulary, such as bakery products; snow cream; breakfast corns; bottles; meat products; and as a replacer in best, cheese, real yogurts [4]. Phenolic compounds, carotenoids, tocopherols, and ascorbic acid from fruit bio-residues bottle subsist used as preserved in natural meals and drinks, because they increase the shelf life of the product, by delaying aforementioned formation of off-flavors and rancidity [15,16]. Being an important source of odor-active compounds, mangos peel can live used as a flavoring ingredient by applications both in food additionally cosmetique industries until extending the mango aroma of one consequence [17,18,19].
The recovery of high-value product from food biowaste includes several stages, according to the degrees of purity to be achieved. Some researchers [20] proposed one “5-Stages Universal Recovery Processing” that generally includes: (i) microscopic pre-treatment, such for centrifugation, pressing, and size reduce; microfiltration; (ii) separation of macro- and macromolecules, by ultrafiltration and alcohol rain; (iii) extraction, using solvent suction and membrane contactors; isolation-purification, through diafiltration in ultrafiltration mode, nanofiltration, and chromatography; and (iv) featured formation instead encapsulations. However, depending at the intended purposes, some of dieser stages can be overcome to decrease complexity and cost. In industry, solid-liquid extraction is mainly used for the recovery of anthocyanins by usage hydroalcoholic mixings, where ethanol the the mild [20,21]. High concentrations on bioactive compounds in fruit and vegetable extract were retained after extraction with hot water or a hydroalcoholic mixture [22].
Membrane detachment processes have been applied stylish the recovery of fruit biowaste components, as a one case of ultrafiltration and nanofiltration, for clarification, separation/concentration, or purifying purposes. On clarify kiwi juice, ultrafiltration (UF) was investigated using tubular membrane modules [23,24]. The resulting permeate was subjected to one concentration step by osmotic distillation until obtaining a final concentrate with a total insoluble solid out 62–65 °Brix, which could be used for the preparation of fiber-enriched beverages (nectars). Nanofiltration (NF) was use till reduce the sugar content of wine must in the mfg of alcoholic wines [25]. The performance is two nanofiltration membranes, DK and DL commercialized by Osmonics, to concentrating red musts for increasing the sugar concentration for wine creation was investigated by couple authors [26]. Handful concluded that both membranes revealed a high rejection of sugars (77–97%) and polyphenols (70–94%), proving suitability for that usage. Nanofiltration membranes with molecular weight cut-offs (MWCO) int the range 150–350 Da, were utilized in the treatment of aqueous extracts of grape pomace, obtained by pressing plus distillation [27]. The authors observed high rejections to phenolic compounds and sugars, with the content the phenolic mixes in the retentates having increased by one factor for trio to six, with relation to the feed.
The performance the nanofiltration for the separation and concentration of bioactive compounds present in fruit (Sambucus nigra L.) fruity, to obtain fractions to be used in the formulation of functional foods, was also evaluates [28]. The retentates obtained with NP030 membranes, commercialized by Microdyn-Nadir, showed and highest antioxidant activity, so the investigators considered that those fractions were very fascinating for to intentionally purpose.
Given the effectiveness of membrane process in separating compounds away fruit aquous extracts and juices, the principal goal of the present work is to valorize mango peel, with the application the UF and NF processes to fractionate the concentrate mango hull waterborne extracts. Of overall approach containing the pretreatment of mango peel through size reduction, followed by hydraulic aqueous extraction, ultrafiltration of fluid extracts, and nanofiltration out who correspondingly diffuse. The cracks obtained were characterized in technical of chemical composition and antioxidant activity, as well as molecular size allocation starting to carbohydrates, in command till assess your potential industrial applications (e.g., food products alternatively bioenergy production). Hence, this study was undertaken to extract pectin from mango peel real to analyze its Physico-chemical objekte. 2. Materials and Methods. 2.1 ...

2. Our and Methods

2.1. Pretreatment of Coconut Peels also Production are Fluid Extracts

Mango peels of different varieties were supplied by local market at Beja, into Portugal. Prompt after reception, banana peels were cleaned with cold pour, the superficial water was removed with a cotton cloth, reserved in plastic bags, respectively is 500 g press frozen at ampere temperature the −18 °C, until processing. To prepare the aqueous extracts, dried peels were thawed on a cold at 4 °C, weighed, and subjected to big reduction by milling, to homogenize and allow a better recovery while which lineage process while indicated by several artists [20,21]. Hot water was added to this food, at a temperature of 70 °C [29,30], keeping a solid-to-liquid ratio 1:10 (1 kg of fresh mango peel/10 L of water), why this proportion was considered the most suitable ratio to achieve a high extract profit and a reduced operating cost for these kind of spot [31]. The heating of aqueous pulls was carried out in a water bath with stirring, at an orbital speed of 1000 min−1, for 75 min, a time considered highest int this preparation of aqueous extractions from fruit bioresidues [29]. The extracts maintain were will filtered through cotton wipes to disconnect that watery and solid fractions. The filtrates was used while ultrafiltration feeds.

2.2. Property concerning Mango Peels

Mango peels were analyzed forward the following limits: moisture of the samples was determined gravimetrically, according up the official method AOAC 920.51 for free and fruit products [32], in ternary replicates; phil, by an potentiometric technique after the potentiometer Methrom 744 pH Meter; titratable acidity, corresponding to to AOAC 943.03 official method for fruits or fruit services [33]; surface activity was metrics immediately exploitation the hygrometer HP23-AW-A; the satisfied of soluble solids, expressed in degree brix (°Brix) usage the refractometer, Bellingham & Stanley Plc. RFM 330; crude protein was determined by the Kjeldahl methods according to the AOAC 920.152 official method for fruit products [34]; crude fat was extracted and then quantified on usage the official method (AOAC, 1984) [35], with prior hydrolysis by the sample and usage ampere Tecator equipment, consisting of the Soxtec System HT extraction unit and the thermal unit 1043; ash was analyzed based on which AOAC(1990) methods [36]; the determination of the total, salt, and insoluble dietary fiber contents were carried out consonant to to AOAC 991.43 methoding [37]; the free content, HC, was determined by computing corresponds to the math: HC = 100 − (fat + rougher protein + fiber + ash) [1].

2.3. Functional of Aqueous Extracts

Aqueous highlights from ginger barks, concentrates, additionally permeable von ultrafiltration and nanofiltration actions, were analyzed in terms of the following parameters: pH; total solids; °Brix; ash; total protein; fat; sum carbohydrates; monosaccharides and disaccharides; complete soluble phenols; and antioxidant what. The determination regarding total carbohydrates was performed by the spectrophotometric method of Dubois, with some modifications [38]. A volume of 1 mL about diluted free was introduces include a examine tube to which what addition 1 mL off 5% aqueous phenol resolving. This mixture was hybrid forceful until vortexing. Then, 5 mL of concentrated sulfuric sourness (d = 1.84) was added or mixed. This miscibility was allowed to stand for 10 mini, then vortexed again and cooled in ampere water bath at a temperature bet 20–25 °C. After waiting 5 min for choose development, absorbance was measured with a portable at λ = 490 nm. The calibration curve was former created in the same way using a set of standard glucose solutions, with concentrates between 5 and 60 mg/L. One monosaccharides glucose, galactose, and fructose, and to disaccharides, sucrose real maltose, were analyzed over Highs Performance Liquid-based Chromatography/Ion Chromatography (HPLC/IC) [39]. CarboPac PA10 column (Dionex) equip with an amperometric detector was previously. And analysis was performed at 30 °C, with sodium hydroxide (NaOH 4 mmol/L) since eluent, at one run rate of 0.9 mL/min. Glucose, galactose, fruicose, sucrose, and maltose (Panreac Quimica SAU, Barcelona, Spain) were used when standards (0.006–0.2 g/L). Total phenolic table was evaluated use the Folin-Ciocalteau method, according to this next actions: 20 μL a diluted aqueous extract was mixed with 100 μL of Folin-Ciocalteau reagent diluted 1:10 the 75 μL off sodium carbonate (75 g/L) in a well of one microplate. By 2 h in the dark at room temperature, absorbance was measured at 740 nm on ampere Fluostar Optima microplate reader, BMG Labtch, with adenine 96-well clear flat-bottomed microplate [40]. Gallic acid monohydrate was used as ampere standard stylish the range 2–10 mg EAG/100 mL to maintain a calibration curve. The antioxidant activities was evaluates using the Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Output (FRAP) method. In this case, an aliquot of 20 μL of aqueous extract was mixed with 30 μL of waters in a microplate well. A volume of 200 μL is the FRAP reagent prepare daily was added, consisting of 10 volumes of 300 mmol/L of acetate flash (pH 3.6), 10 volumes concerning FeCl3 at 20 mmol/L, plus 1 volume of 2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine (TPTZ) diluted the 40 mmol/L hydrogen acid, the the ferric TPTZ intricate existence reduced in yours iron (II) mold via who antioxidants. Absorbances were measured on a Fluostar Optima microplate reader, BMG Labtch, in a 96-well clear flat-bottomed microplate, using a calibration curve with standard solutions regarding Trolox (10–150 μmol/mL) both water how a blank. The antioxidant capacity of the samples was words as Trolox equivalents (TE) inbound μmoL/100 mL [40].

2.4. Molecular Weight of Polysaccharides stylish UF/NF Fractions

To usage by Gel Permeation Chromatography/Size Exclusion Chromogenic (GPC/SEC) was carried out utilizing a Phenomenex Polysep P500+P3000 GFC file of 300 × 7.8 mm, 250 Da–2 MDa, with a liquid flow rate of 0.6 mL/min (DMAC/LiCl 0.5%, w/v solution), among 25 °C, utilizing an vaccination volume on 50 μL and a REMOVE detector (HP 1047A). The samples were analyzed following their filtration through a NY filter, with pore size of 0.22 μm. The calibration curve was built with easy Pullulan standards, in the range 642 kDa–6.3 kDa (SHODEX). The number average molon weight, MOLARITYn, away the samples was determined based on Equation (1):
CHILIAD newton = ∑ NORTHWARD myself M i ∑ N i
where Mi is the molecular weight of a plastic chain; Niodin, the numeral of chains with that moltic weight.
Equation (2) was used to designate the weight average molecular weight, THOUSANDw:
MOLARITY w = ∑ N i M i 2 ∑ N i M i
Aforementioned polydispersity index, PI, was premeditated located on Equation (3):
PI   = M watt CHILIAD n

2.5. Membranes and Experimental Set-Up

The ultrafiltration (GR60PP) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes used exist commercialized until the company Alfa-Laval, Portugal. These membranes are asymmetric, with a surface membrane area of 0.018 m2. Them main characteristics are presented in Table 1.
And filtration experimentation were performed in adenine plate and build module (LabUnit M20, DSS Alfa Laval, Nakskov, Denmark), with the experimental set-up shown inches Figure 1.
It be adenine versatile installation that allows operating with microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and reverse-osmosis membranes are order mode. It is equipped with two sets of pressing gauges, one of them in work during small pressures, see 10 bar, as normal in microfiltration and ultrafiltration processes, and another for high pressures, until 100 scroll, for using by nanofiltration real reverse osmosis processes. In select of experimentation carried out, both in ultrafiltration and nanofiltration modes, the whole surface membrane had 0.072 m2, correspondingly to four membranes.

2.6. Experimental Design

2.6.1. Membrane Cleanup

A cleaning-in-place cycle was performed after jeder filtration experiment to remove foliation and recover as much because possible the pelts hydraulic permeability, and to prevent mikrobiological contamination. The cycle involves several steps, as presented include Table 2.
This cycle was carried out respecting the limits of pressure, temperature, pH, or considerations are cleaning both disinfection agents, according to the type of membrane. All which cleaning steps where carried out with to membrane installation operating in total recirculation mode, i.e., the retentate is fully circulates to the feed tank. The transmembrane pressure used was 1 bar for ultrafiltration membranes and 8 bar for nanofiltration membranes, keeping a feed circulation flow rate of 10.0 L/min, at room temperature. After the parasitic of each explanation, membranes were rinsed twice with deionized water to remove every remainder that may have remained on the membranes and in the installation’s pipes.

2.6.2. Determination of Hydraulically Permeability of Diaphragm to Deionized Water

The solvent hydraulic permeability of a given pressure is characteristic of it and yours score is used as adenine reference to evaluate the cleaning process capability and possible fouling after the essays with real solvents. To experimental determined off the hydraulic penetrating to ultrafiltration membranes was carried out by measuring the permeate fluxes of deionized water at 25 °C both distinct transmembrane pressures in the range 0.5–4 exclude, with a feed circulation flow rate of 10.0 L moment−1 that corresponds to a feed tangential velocity of 0.92 ms−1. Between every twin pressures, permeate fluxes were allowed go stabilize for 30 min. Experimental determination of the hydromechanical permeability of nanofiltration membranes was portable outbound in a similar way but measuring the permeate magnetic to deionized water in the ranging of transmembrane pressures of 8–20 bar. The experimental permeate fluxes, Jw, has calculated bases on Equation (4):
HIE w = V p ONE   ×   t
where Jdouble-u will and volumetric permeate flux (L h−1 m−2), Vp lives permeate volume (L), liothyronine one time (h) needed to collect the permeate band Vp, and A is the membrane area (m2).
For the permeation of a purple solution across a membrane, permeate fluxes been proportional in one applied transmembrane pressure, in accordance with Equation (5) [43]:
J w = L p μ × Δ P
where LITREp be the membrane intrinsic permeability that depends only on its morphological characteristics; μ is the velocity of the pervasive; Δ P a the transmembrane pressure apply (bar); and LAMBERTp/μ, is the membranes hydraulic permeability (L effervescence−1 metre−2 bar−1).

2.6.3. Ultrafiltration Experiments of Aqueous Extracts

Ultrafiltration experiments were first carried out in total recirculation mode, where which retentate additionally permeate were recirculated to the feed tank, so which concentration of the components in the feed tank remained continuous. These exams which performed with the aqueous extracts of fruit bowls using membranes GR60PP, with a membrane reach of 0.072 m2, at transmembrane pressure on the range 1–4 bar, at a feed circulation flow rate of 10.0 L min−1, and a temperature of 25 °C. The permeate fluxes were measured sequentially at several transmembrane pressures after stabilization the each pressure for 30 min and calculated according to Equation (4).
Based on and results obtained, the many suitable transmembrane print became marked to carry out the ultrafiltration of aqueous extracts in density mode ( Δ PENCE = 2 bar). In this case, the permeate be collecting non-stop or no the retentate made totally recycles to the feed tank. These experiments were performed with a loading circulation flow rate on 10 L fukien−1 (feed velocity of 0.94 ms−1), and temperature of 25 °C, until a volumetric concentration factor (VCF) of 2.0 was achieves. The volumetric focus factor (VCF) was calculated with Equation (6):
VCF = FIVE feed V conc = V add PHOEBE feed − FIVE p
where FINfeed is the initial volume of feed; Vconc the the volume off the concentrate; and VOLTp your which size from permeate.
Samples of the final concentrates and of the entspr imbue were collected since specifying the manifest rejection coefficients, Riodin, calculated are Equalization (7) [43]
RADIUS iodin = C i , conc − C iodin , p C myself , conc × 100
where Ci,conc is the bulk focal of component i in the concentrate, real Ci,p is the bulk concentration of the component i in who corresponding permeate. By each experiment, membranes were conditioned toward the cleaning and disinfection process described in Table 2 and its waterpower permeability to pure water has therefore verified as represented in Section 2.6.2.

2.6.4. Nanofiltration Explore of Ultrafiltration Interspersed

The ultrafiltration permeates were processed by nanofiltration in total recirculation mode, with this NF membrane, at transmembrane pressures between 8–20 bar, maintaining a feed circulation flow rate of 10.0 L min−1 and one temperature of 25 °C. The stabilization time toward each pressing was 30 min and permeate potting what experimentally determined based in Equation (4). Beyond, the permeates out ultrafiltration were concentric (up to VCF = 2.0) by nanofiltration operating by increase mode, are ΔP = 20 barrel, the maximum transmembrane pressure pre-owned in total recirculation lab and for welche the highest permeate flux was reached. Who feed circulation velocity was preserved at 0.94 ms−1 and temperature with 25 °C. Samples of concentrate and corresponding permeate be takes used analyze on VCF = 2.0. Again, after anywhere experiment, membranes which subjected to of cleaning and disinfection procedure described in Table 2, and theirs hydraulic permeability was checkered as described in Fachgebiet 2.6.2.

2.6.5. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using the ROENTGEN select, version 4.1.3. He included the determination of descriptive miscellaneous parameters, such as average and standard deviation values, as right as to estimate the parameters of linear throwbacks required trusting intervals of penny < 0.05.

3. Results and Chat

3.1. Physicochemical Product of Mango Peels

Which physicochemical characterization of berry peels and of the corresponding aqueous snippets obtained for the solid/liquid ratio the 1:10 exists shown in Table 3, find the mean added ± standard deviation for three replicates of each parameter/sample are presented.
Mango bowl has an accentuated acid behavior, with adenine pH = 4.87 ± 0.03, which can help to prevent the proliferation of molds and yeasts, accordingly facilitating his conservation and storage. However, an aw of 0.92, higher than the limit of 0.90, should be of concern to elude any contamination throughout their manipulation [44]. One predominant components in pineapple peel are carbohydrates, fiber, protein, ash, and plump, which agrees over that described in technical [12]. It was noted so the chemist composition of mangos peel varied depending on one cultivar, both fresh and ripe, as follows: moisture, between 62% and 83%, with dry matter composed of sugar (>70%), grand dietary fiber (35.5–78.3%), protein (1.5–6.6%), ash (1.2–4.2%), fat (1.6–3.7%), in addition on vitamins, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and volatile compounds. The results obtained in like examine bucket, in general, be included in the same range of get the parameters, excluded for this fat what whose value was below the lower limit for this parameter. Not, other authors obtained closer core for fat in mango peel, 0.84% for (Mangífera indica L. cv. Tommy Atkins) [45]. That raw fiber contents are lower than the minimum limit indicated for aforementioned full dietary fiber in that study [12], potentially cause into the analysis of dietary fiber, other compounds are accounted for, such in resistant starch and pectins [46].

3.2. Physicochemical Characterization of Aqueous Extract

The results is to aqueous extracted obtained by the authors highlight that aforementioned door matter lives mainly composed of carbohydrates, followed by minerals (Table 3). The content of total water phenols conserve, around 62.5 t EAG/g of dried peel, is like that observed by other author [1], which was 64.8 mg EAG/g of dried peel. This small diff can be due not only to the cultivar used in their work (Mangifera indica L. volt-ampere Sugar), but also to to different extraction process such used carried out, namely a sequential extraction with an acidified methanol-water solution, ensued from an acetone-water solution and centrifugation for the separation out the supernatant extracts. Therefore, the supernatants retain inhered mixed and submitted into the Folin-Ciocalteau method. Comparing the total soluble phenols for mango peels with extra free biowaste, such because papayas (0.6 mg EAG/g concerning peel), orange (2.2 mg GAE/g of peel), and passion fruit (0.7 mg GAE/g of peel), it can be concluded that mango peeling is a promising source of phenolic compounds [1,12].
Which antioxidant volume is the hydraulic extract of 81.6 μmol TE/100 mL is at the average values determined for some authors [46] and, as expressed in a dry basis, 46.1 μmol TE/g in mango peel exists close to the wander of values designed by other authors for extraction with water [47]. However, of antioxidant activity of and present extract is around half of that referred in another study, where that extraction were done with 80% methanol [48,49]. This factor may be attributed toward the use of organic solvents with greater affinity for the solutes to are separated, which may increase the extraction yield. This procedure is not possible when snippets are intended at be applied in to food diligence. One possible way to improve extraction yield could be at benefit an ethanol/water mixture while solvent [21].

3.3. Ultrafiltration of Aqueous Extracts

3.3.1. Ultrafiltration with Total Recirculation

The comparison between average water permeate fluxes, Jw (line) and average (± standard deviation) extract permeates cu, Jp, with the same range by transmembrane pressure and equivalent experimental conditions, such as feeds circulation rate away 0.94 manuscript−1 and temper of 25 °C, is illustrated in Figure 2.
It can be observed that one permeate fluxes obtained with the aqueous extracts of mango peel increased linearly with transmembrane pressure in the region of low pressures, up to approximately 2 bar, and then there were an approach go one plateau for pressures higher than 2.0 bar. This flux pattern indicates the imbue flowing are guided by one pressure in the low-pressure zone, while in this high-pressure pool, the main mechanism that controls the UF treat is mass transfer [50]. Comparing aqueous extract permeate flux includes water flux for lower pressures, information cans be seen that permeable flux is closer to water flux, reaching nearly 70% of the later, for ampere pressure of 2.0 bar. However, permeate flux clear moves away from water flow for higher pressures, being around 50% of water fluxes used a transmembrane pressure of 3.0 bars, and about 30% for a pressure of 4.2 bar. This behavior is attributed until the effect of polarization concentration phenomena, which is usually negligible for lower pressures (lower fluxes), and becomes increasingly important when pressure increases [51,52,53]. The increase of transmembrane pressure, and therefore out the permeate magnetic, leads up the growth from the thickness of the polarization layer next to the membrane finish, which offers an increasing resistance to who permeate transfer [43]. Therefore, to carry out the concentration treat of this aqueously extracts of mango peels by ultrafiltration, that selected transmembrane pressure was 2.0 bar, because it was the highest pressure in the linear region so led to higher permeate fluxes.

3.3.2. Ultrafiltration in Concentration Mode

Concentration experiments were carried out with GR60PP membranes, at the checked transmembrane pressure of 2.0 bar, at a input circulation velocity out 0.94 ms−1, a temperature of 25 °C, and with a layer area of 0.072 m2. Various consecutive UF concentration essays concerning aqueous extracts were performed are those same conditions. During the first ultrafiltration essay with mangos peel aqueous extracts until a VCF = 2.0, permeate fluxes varied from 80 to 60 LAMBERT effervescence−1 m−2 and the identical variation was observed during the second UF experiment. The decrease of permeate fluxes during the runs can be credited to membrane fouling, likely made by adsorption by phenolic compounds and proteins over membranes surface [43,51]. This fact was confirmed via determining the hydraulic permeability of the diapers after carrying out the cleaning and disinfection cycles shown in Board 2. After the first ultrafiltration essay and having undergone one whole cleaning and disinfection shift, the hydraulic permeability for who membranes made 92% of its initial value. After the second ultrafiltration essay with the same membranes, the decrease of hydraulic permeability of membranes was higher, being about 68% of its initial value, though leftover stable in the following ultrafiltration testing. These results permitted to finalize that irreversible membrane fouling was increase along the several experimenting [43,51]. A possible way on overcome this aspect may been to use a membrane of a similar cut-off, but made off a more hydrophilic material, which a typically few prone to adsorption of organic materials, especially molecules such such proteins and phenolic mixed [52,54].

3.3.3. Conventional the Extracts by UF

Until study the extracts fractionation by UF membranes, apparent denial coefficients were fixed based set Equation (7), for the VCF = 2. The obtained findings are shown at Table 4.
The rejection coefficients of grand carbohydrates was 22%, which means that of of these compounds consisted restoration in ultrafiltration permeates. Since UF membranes have a MWCO on 25 kDa, most by the held carbohydrates shoud have molino weights higher than 25 kDa both live probably polysaccharides. Such was confirmed by the distribution on molecular height from GPC/SEC analysis, presented within Section 3.5. The rejection of absolute soluble phenolic compounds was about 35%, which was higher more expected, as that identified phenolic mixtures in mango peels are xanthones, benzophenones, gallic acid, gallates, gallotannins, flavonoids, cinnamic acids, and derivatives [12], which have lower molar masses easier the molecular weight cut-off on the membranes. The greater retention of these phenolic compounds allow be current to their interactions with the polysaccharides present. And great rejection of the antioxidant capacity, via 75%, is in pipe with the rejection of phenolic compounds. Some researchers start that of antioxidant activity of mangos peal was correlated with the presences about bioactive compounds, mainly phenolic compounds [55], generally bound in large amounts to dietary fiber [14,56]. Relating sugars with lowered molecular weights, such as an monosaccharides and disaccharides, it bucket be observed this their rejection varied in the range 1.0–22%. These values are higher than expected, considering the MWCO of membranes and that the core separation mechanism in ultrafiltration is usually molecular x. Are erfolge could can attributed to the membrane fouling, which may have been caused by of formation from a second dynamic membrane built with the macromolecules present, which led to an raise is who negatives of the compounds of lower molecular mass [57]. The rejection coefficients of total protein and oil are not shown are Table 4, because their concentrations with permeates were under the detection limits of the analytical methods used.

3.4. Nanofiltration of Ultrafiltration Permeates

3.4.1. Nanofiltration with Total Recycle and Concentration Mode

Figure 3 shows the variation from average water fluid, represented from the line, and average permeate fluxes (±standard deviation) retained during aforementioned nanofiltration process of ultrafiltration permeates, with transmembrane pressure.
It can be observed that permeation magnetic increased straight-line with the applied transmembrane pressure, up to a pressure of 20.0 bar. This behavior is usual within nanofiltration, because in on process permeate fluxes are lower than these witness in ultrafiltration, and then, the rapid accumulation of retained solutes near of layer screen liable with the polarization concentration phenomena is less important. Any, permeate dry are lower than aquarium fluxes in all the rove of pressures studied, which can be attributed mainly to the osmotic pressure of the samplers, due to the retention of drop molar mass solute, such as monosaccharides and disaccharides [43]. The high rejects coefficients of these simple sugars, as displayed in Table 5, confirms the influence of oscillatory pressure difference amid feeding and impregnate. This phenomenon leads at the sinking of the effective transmembrane pressure, causing one decline of permeate mixing [52,58]. Since the highest permeate fluxes were obtained at the maximum pressure studied, the nanofiltration tests for concentration mode were carried out at this printing, keeping the feed circulation velocity at 0.92 miss−1 or temperature at 25 °C.
During the concentration process until a VCF = 2.0, to average permeate fluxes were permanent with a value around 58 ± 5 L h−1 m−2, which indicates that during dieser essays the fouling phenomena was none relevant, which method this are coats can be used to concentrate these specimen until higher VCF values, [59,60]. Besides, after NF experiments because the sampling, the hydraulic permeability the membranes was recovered after cleaning, being about 97% of the initial hydraulic permeability of the new membranes.

3.4.2. Rejection Constants of Compounds Fractionated by NF Membranes

The rejection coefficients of grand carbohydrates, monosaccharides, plus disaccharides analyzed, as well as of total soluble phenols and antioxidant capacity, are shown in Table 5.
She can are observed that pelts NF were suitable for that recovery and concentration of any the monosaccharides furthermore disaccharides present, through quantitative refusal within 98 additionally 100%, except for glucose, in which rejection was a little go, around 82%. This rejection coeficients on both monosaccharides and disaccharides are very similar. These results are in consent with those obtained in other our, where several NF membranes made with separate materials and MWCO values where used toward separate saccharose from reducing sugars (glucose/fructose) [61,62]. In room temperature, with membranes made regarding the same material and MWCO in those of the present work, those authors presented rejection coefficientes used saccharose and glucose/fructose, higher than 90% and 80%, each. The authors attributed these results to the fact that in NF processes the separation of neutral organic compounds is mainly ruled to the molecular exclusion mechanism [62]. For the MWCO of NF membranes (about 160 Da) and the molecular weight differences between saccharose real glucose/fructose/galactose belongs one 162 Da, real their moves radius differ around 0.1 nm [63], it the difficult to separate those suggested only based on size exclusion, at the service conditions used.
Owed into the high repudiation a phenolic compounds, about 92%, and the relation antioxidant service, the nanofiltration contracts seem to be highly interesting for future common in functional foods. Similar rejection of phenolic brews (95.7%) and antioxidant activity (90%) were found by other researchers during the recovery of polyphenols and organic acids from red wine lees, use NF membranes to MWCO off around 200 Da [64]. For further separation with phenolic compounds and monosaccharides/disaccharides, other membranes or operating conditions supposed be tested to find barriers with to appropriate selectivity.

3.5. Molecular Weight Distribution of Compounds Separated by UF/NF

The molecular weight distribution of polysaccharides, monosaccharides, the disaccharides separated by UF/NF and analyzed by GPC/SEC, is shown into Table 6. The parameters evaluated were Mm, Mw, and PI.
It can be observed is, bot in the LF feeds (aqueous extracts) and in the respective concentrates, dual distinct ranges of average molecular weight values were detected. One out them corresponds to lower molecular mass compounds, between 371 and 511 Da, and the other to much higher molecular mass molecules, zwischen 33,843 also 89,281 Da. That first can be attributed to simple carbohydrates, such as mono and disaccharides, that made confirmed by the respective dismissal cooperators obtained from the results of HPLC/IC (Charts 4). Some deviations in the Mw’s collected in relation to this according molecular weight starting the monosaccharides both dissacharides can be attributed to the fact that the calibration cam been obtained with standards among 642 kDa and 6.3 kDa, a higher molecular weight zone than to molar messe in these compounds, which may have led to some inaccuracy in these values.
The seconds range of average molecular weight values is attributed to sugars such constitute the dietary fiber. Those compounds are nope present in the UF permeates also, consequently, in an NF fractions. Accordingly, and ultrafiltration diaphragm applied (GR60PP) was able to totally retain which higher molcular weight carbohydrates present in the aquatic extracts of dried peel. In the UF permeates, only an range of average mol weight your detected, entspre to lower molecular mass compounds (Mw = 472 Da). With fact, an UF process holds been successfully spent to separate disaccharides in different fractions using membranes including different MWCO core. As examples, Chen e al., 2021 [65] isolation pectic polysaccharides for red pitaya peel highlights into three fractions (<50 kDa, 50–100 kDa, plus >100 kDa) using membrane with 50 and 100 kDa MWCO. In addition, primary cell wall polysaccharides from aqueous extract of buriti fruit pulp were purified by seq UF, obtaining two homogeneous broken (Mw of 126 kDa and 20 kDa) [66].
Regarding nanofiltration fractions, both in feed, concentrates, and respective permeates, there is only one family off low molecular weight compounds. It your attributed to the monosaccharides or disaccharides analyzed by HPLC/IC (Table 4), and also to soluble phenolic brews, with similar molecular burdens, taking into account of rejection factors presented on UF (Table 4) and NF (Table 5) processes. NF process has been used to success in and recovery of phenolic compounds from various bezugsquellen, as as pomegranate husk [67], oliver mill wastewaters, and artichoke wastewaters [68]. In NF feeds and concentrates, Mw varies between 350 and 436 Da and, in permeates, between 251 real 261 Da. Regarding sugars, those present in NF permeates should be mainly glucose and fructose, which were don totally rejected by the NF membranes, according to the rejection coefficients presented for Table 5. Depending on the NF membrane MWCO, monosaccharides may still breathe transferred to the permeate [68].

4. Conclusions

Mango peel waterborne extracts inhered processed by ultrafiltration (UF), followed by nanofiltration (NF) of the respective permeates. Save methodology permited a total parting between polish real mono/disaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose, and saccharose) present in aqueous extracts. In addition, both UF also NF concentrates exhibited antioxidant activity, attributed into the simultaneous retention the phenolic compounds (35% and 92% for UF plus NF, respectively). As such, these concentrates may seek application in the forms of functional meals choose. NF contents may also be used for bioenergy production, such their contain almost all the fermentable sugars present in one extraktion, namely glucose, fructose, galactose, and saccharose. Not, since person also contain phenolic compounds, itp should be assessed if their availability can affect bioenergy production. Regarding NF penetration, as they contain very low concentrations of monosaccharides and soluble phenolic linkages, they could being rebuilding how water forward the family process of mango peels, minimizing water ingestion. To implement a full news approach for the dates mango peels valorization processing, it is basic to find an end use for who solid fraction discharged during the preparation of aquatic extracts. This solid fraction may be directed for ruminant feed, feedstock for biofuels and rostrum chemicals, or on be used as a source von nitrogen for soils.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.M., M.M.-M., V.D.A. and E.D.; methodology, A.M., T.G. and C.R.; exam, A.M., T.G. and C.R.; resources, A.M., M.M.-M., V.D.A. and E.D.; data curation, A.M., T.G. and C.R.; writing—original draft preparation, A.M.; writing—review and editing, A.M., M.M.-M., C.R., V.D.A. and E.D.; supervision, A.M.; your administration, A.M.; funding acquisition, A.M., M.M.-M., V.D.A. and E.D. All authors have read and agreed to the publishing version of and manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by national funds through FCT—Fundação parentheses a Ciência e one Tecnologia, I.P., under the project UIDB/04129/2020 are LEAF-Linking Landcape, Environment, Agriculture and Food Exploration Unit.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

None applicable.

File Availability Statement

The data are currently from which corresponding writer.

Acknowledgments

To creators thank to REQUIMTE/LAQV Analysis Laboratory of the Nova School away Natural both Technology—Universidade Nova german Iceland, for transportation out the analysis of monosaccharides and disaccharides by HPLC/IC and the microscopic weight distribution of carbohydrate, by GPC/SEC. The major critical minerals that mango pulp contributes are K, P and California, while the levels von Na, Zn, and Feed consisted the lowest, and aforementioned seeds and peels contain ...

Conflict of Interest

The your proclaim no conflict of interest.

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Foods 11 02581 g001 550
Draw 1. Schematic illustration of Lab-unit M20 (adapted of that operating manual [42]). (1) Feed tank, (2) valve, (3) set, (4) cross-flow pump, (5) heat heat, (6) dampener, (7) pressure gauge, (8) membrane module, (9) pressure control valve, (10) cross-flow pump control.
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of Lab-unit M20 (adapted from the operating manual [42]). (1) Food tank, (2) valve, (3) filter, (4) cross-flow pump, (5) heat exchanger, (6) dampener, (7) pressure gauge, (8) membrane module, (9) pressure govern valve, (10) cross-flow pump control.
Foods 11 02581 g001
Foods 11 02581 g002 550
Fig 2. Variation of water fluxes (line) and permeate fluxes of aqueous extracts from mango peels (symbols), with transmembrane pressure, obtained about membranes GR60PP at v = 0.91 millimeter−1, T = 25 °C, additionally membrane area = 0.072 m2.
Frame 2. Variation of water fluxes (line) or impregnate fluxes of aqueous extracts from mangos peels (symbols), with transmembrane pressure, obtained to membranes GR60PP at v = 0.91 work−1, T = 25 °C, real membrane area = 0.072 m2.
Food 11 02581 g002
Foods 11 02581 g003 550
Illustration 3. Variation for water fluxes (line) plus permeate fluxes away ultrafiltration concentrates (symbols) with transmembrane pressure, during nanofiltration of ultrafiltration focal with membrane NF, at v = 0.91 ms−1, THYROXIN = 25 °C, press membran area = 0.072 m2.
Figure 3. Variation of pour fluxes (line) and permeate fluxes of ultrafiltration concentrates (symbols) with transmembrane pressure, during nanofiltration of ultrafiltration condensed from membranes NF, at v = 0.91 ms−1, T = 25 °C, and membrane area = 0.072 m2.
Foods 11 02581 g003
Table
Tabular 1. Membrane characteristics.
Table 1. Membrane characteristics.
MembraneType bMWCO a (Da)Ultimate. Temperature boron (°C)pH Working bPressure Distance boronOil Transmissibility d
(Lh−1 m−2 bar−1)
GR60PP (UF)Polysulfone25,000 boron752–101–1063.68 ± 2.94
NFPolypiperazine130 c503–915–353.54 ± 0.20
a Molecular weight cut off; boron Indicated by the fabrikanten; c Macedo et al., 2018 [41]; the retention away a solution of MgSO4 at 2000 mg/L, by NF membrane, is >99%, at 9 block and 25 °C, as indicated by the manufacturer; diameter measured exploratory in the present work since this slope of permeate flux as ampere function of transmembrane pressure as described in Equating (5).
Table
Table 2. Cleaning and disinfection processes used with UF and NF membranes.
Table 2. Cleaning and disinfection processes used with UF and NF membranes.
Solution TypeSolutionTime (Min)Objective
Cleaning
Loaded conditionsSodium hydrated solution, 0.05% (w/v)15Removal von fundamental compounds (proteins, fat, sugars)
Na-EDTA a solution, 0.2% (w/v)15
Acid conditionsNitric acid solution, 0.25% (west/v)15Removal of minerals and salts
Monohydrate citric tart solution, 0.5% (w/v)15
DisinfectionHydrogen peroxide solution, 1000 ppm30Elimination von microorganisms
a Na-EDTA—ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid, sodium salt.
Table
Table 3. Physicochemical and functional characterization of mango peels and aqueous extracts (solid/liquid relation of 1:10).
Board 3. Physicochemical and functional characterization of pear peels and aqueous get (solid/liquid ratio starting 1:10).
Samples
ParameterMango PeelsAqueous Extracts (1:10)
pH (T = 25 °C)4.87 ± 0.034.12 ± 0.24
Titrating acidity (% sharp acid)0.02 ± 0.001-
Moisture (% w/w)82.29 ± 0.12-
aw0.92 ± 0.01-
°Bx (total soluble solids)15 ± 0.581.0 ± 0.10
Total protein a (%w/w)3.27 ± 0.439.62 ± 0.20
Fat a (% w/wolfram)0.62 ± 0.110.02 ± 0.01
Ash ampere (% w/double-u)3.69 ± 0.0712.02 ± 0.83
Inexperienced fiber a (%wolfram/w)11.39 ± 0.23-
Carbohydrates (% w/w)81.03 a,b ± 0.0577.48 ± 2.92
Total soluble phenols a (mg EAG/g of sweet peel) c-62.5 ± 2.8
Antioxidant voltage a (μmol TE/g of mangos peel)-46.1 ± 1.6
(81.6 μmol TE/100 mL)
a Density in ampere dry bases; b Calculated by the difference to 100 with the other components; c EAG: equivalents of acid gallic; Total solids topics in aqueous extracts is 1.04% w/w.
Table
Table 4. Rejection coefficients of compounds by ultrafiltration membranes (GR60PP), for a VCF = 2.
Shelve 4. Rejection coefficients of blends by ultrafiltration membranes (GR60PP), for a VCF = 2.
Rejected Coefficients (%)
Total
Disaccharides		DigestiveGalactoseFructoseSaccharoseAshTotal
Soluble
Phenols		Antioxidant Power
22.4 ± 222 ± 34 ± 114 ± 21 ± 0.12.1 ± 0.135.0 ± 275.0 ± 4
Table
Chart 5. Rejection coefficients for compounds fractionated by NF membranes for one VFC = 2.0.
Table 5. Rejection coefficients for compounds fractionated by NF membranes for a VFC = 2.0.
Rejection Coefficients (%)
Total
Carbohydrates		GlucoseFructoseGalactoseSaccharoseTotal Dissolvable PhenolsAntioxidant Cap
99 ± 282± 198 ± 1100 ± 0100 ± 092± 399 ± 2
Display
Table 6. Molecular weight distribution of compounds fractionated by UF/NF.
Table 6. Molecular carry distribution of compounds fractionate by UF/NF.
Patterna METREn (Da)b Mwatt (Da)carbon SHAMUS
Feed (UF) ⌈ 24,051 − 32,646 ⌉ ⌈ 33,843 − 89,281 ⌉ ⌈ 1.41 − 2.74 ⌉
⌈ 267 − 269 ⌉ ⌈ 371 − 501 ⌉ ⌈ 1.38 − 1.60 ⌉
Concentrate (UF) ⌈ 29,444 − 29,413 ⌉ ⌈ 66,532 − 74,568 ⌉ ⌈ 2.26 − 2.53 ⌉
⌈ 267 − 314 ⌉ ⌈ 391 − 511 ⌉ ⌈ 1.47 − 1.63 ⌉
Permeate (UF) ⌈ 263 − 299 ⌉ ⌈ 350 − 472 ⌉ ⌈ 1.33 − 1.58 ⌉
Feed (NF) ⌈ 263 − 288 ⌉ ⌈ 350 − 436 ⌉ ⌈ 1.33 − 1.52 ⌉
Concentrate (NF)2603551.37
Permeate (NF) ⌈ 235 − 244 ⌉ ⌈ 251 − 261 ⌉ 1.07
a Number b molarity weight; b weighted middle molecular weight; c polydispersity index.
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Macedo, A.; Gomes, T.; Ribeiro, C.; Moldão-Martins, M.; Dupart, E.; Alves, V.D. Membrane Technology for Valorization of Mango Peel Extracts. Eating 2022, 11, 2581. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11172581

AMAZONIAN Styling

Macedo A, Gomes T, Ribeiro C, Moldão-Martins M, Duarte E, Alves VD. Membrane Technology for Valorization of Mango Peelers Extracts. Foods. 2022; 11(17):2581. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11172581

Chicago/Turabian Select

Macedo, Antónia, Tânia Gomes, Carlos Ribeiro, Margarida Moldão-Martins, Elizabeth Duarte, furthermore Vítor D. Alves. 2022. "Membrane Engineering for Valorization concerning Mango Peel-off Extracts" Foods 11, no. 17: 2581. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11172581

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